libfalcon.cpp

/*
 * libfalcon.cpp - core functions for inference and loading of ggcc type falcon 7B and 40B models
 * https://github.com/cmp-nct/ggllm.cpp
 * MIT licensed, contributions welcome
 */
#ifndef _GNU_SOURCE
#define _GNU_SOURCE
#include <cstddef>
#include <cstdint>
#include <cstdio>
#endif

#include "llama-util.h"
#include "libfalcon.h"
#include "cmpnct_unicode.h"

#include "ggml.h"
#ifdef GGML_USE_CUBLAS
#include <cuda_runtime.h>
#include "ggml-cuda.h"
#elif defined(GGML_USE_CLBLAST)
#include "ggml-opencl.h"
#endif

#ifdef GGML_USE_METAL
#include "ggml-metal.h"
#endif
#ifndef QK_K
#define QK_K 256
#endif

#include <array>
#include <ctime>
#include <cinttypes>
#include <fstream>
#include <random>
#include <map>
#include <unordered_map>
#include <queue>
#include <cassert>
#include <cstring>
#include <climits>
#include <memory>
#include <algorithm>
#include <initializer_list>
#include <thread>
#include <atomic>
#include <mutex>
#include <sstream>
#include <numeric>
// #include <locale>

#if defined(_MSC_VER)
// disable "possible loss of data" 
#pragma warning(disable: 4244 4267)
#endif

#define LLAMA_USE_SCRATCH
#define LLAMA_MAX_SCRATCH_BUFFERS 16

// available falcon models
enum e_model {
    FALCON_UNKNOWN,
    FALCON_7B,
    FALCON_40B,
};
static const char *unused0 = FINETUNE_NAME[0]; 

static const size_t MB = 1024*1024;

// computed for n_ctx == 2048
// TODO: dynamically determine these sizes
//       needs modifications in ggml

typedef void (*offload_func_t)(struct ggml_tensor * tensor);

void llama_nop(struct ggml_tensor * tensor) { // don't offload by default
    (void) tensor;
}

static const std::map<e_model, size_t> & MEM_REQ_SCRATCH0()
{
    static std::map<e_model, size_t> k_sizes = {
        { FALCON_7B,   32ull * MB }, 
        { FALCON_40B,  32ull * MB }, 
    };
    return k_sizes;
}

static const std::map<e_model, size_t> & MEM_REQ_SCRATCH1()
{
    static std::map<e_model, size_t> k_sizes = {
        { FALCON_7B,   32ull * MB },
        { FALCON_40B,  32ull * MB },
    };
    return k_sizes;
}
// batch mode requires growingly large tensors
static std::pair<size_t, size_t> MEM_REQ_EVAL_BATCH(
    e_model model, int32_t n_batch, int32_t n_ctx_prompt)
{
    size_t batch_scratch0 = 0;
    size_t batch_scratch1 = 0;
    // currently does not calculate if batch reduced at last passt (so assumes ctx is a clean multiple of batch)
    // that would cause higher memory allocation than needed
    // todo: calculate the multipliers based on actual tensor sizes
    double a = 0;
    double d = 0;
    double lin_a = n_ctx_prompt * n_batch;
    switch (model)
    {
        case FALCON_7B:
            a=0.00029706;
            d=92;
            batch_scratch0 = (size_t) (lin_a * a + d)*MB;
            batch_scratch1 = (size_t) 145752 * (size_t)n_batch + 8*MB;
            break;

        case FALCON_40B:
            a=0.00065;
            d=118;
            batch_scratch0 = (size_t) (lin_a * a + d)*MB;
            batch_scratch1 = (size_t) 262144ull * (size_t)n_batch + 8*MB; // 25mb clean/100 batch
            break;
        default:
        break;
    }

    return std::make_pair(batch_scratch0, batch_scratch1);
    
}

// this is mostly needed for temporary mul_mat buffers to dequantize the data
// todo: check if this is actually needed - most happens in scratch 0
static const std::map<e_model, size_t> & MEM_REQ_EVAL()
{
    static std::map<e_model, size_t> k_sizes = {
        { FALCON_7B,   160ull * MB }, 
        { FALCON_40B, 256ull * MB }, // for full offload matmul GPU this is oversized
    };
    return k_sizes;
}


// default hparams (Falcon 7B)
struct falcon_hparams {
    int32_t n_vocab = 65024;
    int32_t n_ctx   = 2048;
    int32_t n_embd  = 4544;
    int32_t n_head  = 71;
    int32_t n_head_kv = 1;
    int32_t n_layer = 32;
    int32_t n_falcon_type = 7; // 7 for Falcon-7B, 40 for Falcon-40B
    int32_t n_bpe_merges = 64784; // in binary starting with FALCON_FILE_VERSION_GGCC_V1
    enum llama_ftype ftype = LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_F16;

    bool operator!=(const falcon_hparams & other) const {
        return static_cast<bool>(memcmp(this, &other, sizeof(falcon_hparams)));
    }
};

static size_t MEM_REQ_KV_SELF(
    const falcon_hparams & hparams, ggml_type wtype, int32_t n_ctx)
{
    const int n_head_kv = hparams.n_head_kv;
    const int head_dim = hparams.n_embd / hparams.n_head;
    const int n_layer = hparams.n_layer;

    const int64_t ne = n_head_kv * head_dim * n_layer * n_ctx;
    #ifdef FALCON_NO_KV_UPGRADE
    return ggml_tensor_overhead()*2 + 2u * (ggml_tensor_overhead() + ne * ggml_type_size(wtype));
    #else
    return ggml_tensor_overhead() + 3u * (ggml_tensor_overhead() + ne * ggml_type_size(wtype));
    #endif
}

struct falcon_layer {
    // normalization
    struct ggml_tensor* input_layernorm;
    struct ggml_tensor* input_layernorm_b;
    struct ggml_tensor* attention_norm;    // Falcon-40B only
    struct ggml_tensor* attention_norm_b;  // Falcon-40B only

    // attention
    struct ggml_tensor* query_key_value;
    struct ggml_tensor* wo;

    // ff
    struct ggml_tensor* ffn_up;
    struct ggml_tensor* ffn_down;
};

struct falcon_kv_cache {
    struct ggml_tensor * k;
    struct ggml_tensor * v; // only used with FALCON_NO_KV_UPGRADE
    struct ggml_tensor * v_a;
    struct ggml_tensor * v_b;
    
    typedef enum v_buftype { V_A, V_B } v_buftype_t;
    v_buftype_t v_current = V_A; 

    struct ggml_context * ctx = NULL;

    llama_ctx_buffer buf;

    int n; // number of tokens currently in the cache

    ~falcon_kv_cache() {
        if (ctx) {
            ggml_free(ctx);
        }
    }
};




#if 1

std::string replaceAll(std::string str, const std::string& from, const std::string& to) {
    size_t start_pos = 0;
    while((start_pos = str.find(from, start_pos)) != std::string::npos) {
        str.replace(start_pos, from.length(), to);
        start_pos += to.length(); // Handles case where 'to' is a substring of 'from'
    }
    return str;
}
struct TrieNode {
    std::map<char, TrieNode*> map;
    int32_t Id = -1; 
};
struct Trie {
    TrieNode *root;

    Trie() : root(new TrieNode()) {}
    ~Trie() {
        if(root)
        deleteTrie(root);
    }
        // Move constructor
    Trie(Trie&& other) noexcept : root(other.root) {
        other.root = nullptr;
    }

    // Move assignment operator
    Trie& operator=(Trie&& other) noexcept {
        if (this != &other) {
            if(root)
                deleteTrie(root);
            root = other.root;
            other.root = nullptr;
        }
        return *this;
    }


    void insert(const std::string &token, int32_t Id) {
        TrieNode* current = root;
        for(auto ch : token) {
            if(current->map.find(ch) == current->map.end())
                current->map[ch] = new TrieNode();
            current = current->map[ch];
        }
        current->Id = Id;
    }
    
    void reset() 
    {
        deleteTrie(root);
        root = new TrieNode();
    }

private:
    void deleteTrie(TrieNode* node) {
        for(auto &it: node->map) {
            deleteTrie(it.second);
        }
        delete node;
    }

};
struct falcon_vocab {
    using id = int32_t;
    using token = std::string;
    std::map<std::string, uint32_t> max_token_length; // max length, for each 2byte prefix
    // std::unordered_map<std::pair<std::string, std::string>, int> bpe_ranks;
    std::map<std::pair<std::string,std::string>, int> bpe_ranks;
    std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>> bpe_merges;
    std::map<std::string, int> special_tokens;


    struct token_score {
        token tok;
        float score;
    };

    std::unordered_map<token, id> token_to_id;
    std::vector<token_score> id_to_token;
    Trie trie; // highspeed access to tokens by prefix tree


    // populate trie from map
    void populate_trie_from_map() {
        trie.reset();
        for (const auto& pair : token_to_id) {
            trie.insert(pair.first, pair.second);
            if (pair.first.size() >= 2)
            {
                std::string prefix = pair.first.substr(0, 2);
                max_token_length[prefix] = std::max(max_token_length[prefix], (uint32_t)pair.first.size());
            }
        }
    }
    // populate token ranks map
    int populate_bpe_ranks(std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>> bpe_merges_) {
        for (int i = 0; i < (int)bpe_merges_.size(); i++) {
            bpe_ranks.emplace(bpe_merges_[i], i);
        }
        bpe_merges = bpe_merges_;

        // populate special tokens too (0-11 and if available 65024++)
        for (int i = 0; i < 12; i++) {
            special_tokens[id_to_token[i].tok] = i;
        }
        for (int i = 65024; i < (int)id_to_token.size(); i++) {
            special_tokens[id_to_token[i].tok] = i;
        }
        // token_to_id["</s>"] = 11; // bugfix for TII instruct training (blocks stopwords)
        // special_tokens["</s>"] = 11; // bugfix for TII instruct training (blocks stopwords)


        return bpe_merges_.size();
    }
    // Trim whitespace characters from the beginning and end of the string
    void trim(std::string& str) {
        // Remove whitespace characters from the beginning of the string
        str.erase(str.begin(), std::find_if(str.begin(), str.end(), [](int ch) {
            return !std::isspace(ch);
        }));

        // Remove whitespace characters from the end of the string
        str.erase(std::find_if(str.rbegin(), str.rend(), [](int ch) {
            return !std::isspace(ch);
        }).base(), str.end());
    }
   // requires the standard HF type tokenizer.json (pretty printed)
    std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>> parse_json_to_bpe_merges(const std::string& filename) {
        std::ifstream file(filename);
        if (!file) {
            fprintf(stderr, "Error: could not open file %s\n", filename.c_str());
            return std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>>(); // return empty vector
        }

        std::string line;
        std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>> bpe_merges;
        bool isMergesSection = false;
        int count=0;

        while (std::getline(file, line)) {
            // Trim the line
            line.erase(0, line.find_first_not_of(" \t"));
            line.erase(line.find_last_not_of(" \t") + 1);
            trim(line);

            if (line == "\"merges\": [") {
                isMergesSection = true;
                continue;
            }

            if (isMergesSection) 
            {
                static char allowedSymbols[] = {' ', '\t', '\n', '\r', ']', ',', ';'};

                std::vector<char> bytes(line.begin(), line.end()); // Convert the string to vector of bytes
                if(bytes.size() <= 8) {
                    bool is_finished=true;
                    for (const char& byte : bytes) {
                        if (std::find(std::begin(allowedSymbols), std::end(allowedSymbols), byte) == std::end(allowedSymbols)) {
                            
                            is_finished=false;
                            break;
                        }
                    }
                    if(is_finished)
                        break;
                }
                

                // Remove the leading and trailing quotes
                if (line.size() < 2) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "Error: Invalid line format in file %s\n", filename.c_str());
                    fprintf(stderr, "Line: %s\n", line.c_str());
                    return std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>>(); // return empty vector
                }
                size_t pos = line.find('"');
                if (pos != std::string::npos) 
                {
                line.erase(0, pos + 1);
                }
                pos = line.rfind('"');
                if (pos != std::string::npos) 
                {
                    line.erase(pos);
                }


                std::istringstream iss(line);
                std::string first, second;
                pos = line.find(' ', 1); // Start the search from the second character
                if (pos != std::string::npos) 
                {
                    first = line.substr(0, pos);
                    second = line.substr(pos + 1);
                }
                for (auto& str : {std::ref(first), std::ref(second)}) 
                {
                    size_t pos = 0;
                    while ((pos = str.get().find("\\\\", pos)) != std::string::npos) {
                        str.get().replace(pos, 2, "\\");
                        pos += 1;
                    }
                    pos = 0;
                    while ((pos = str.get().find("\\\"", pos)) != std::string::npos) {
                        str.get().replace(pos, 2, "\"");
                        pos += 1;
                    }
                }
                bpe_merges.push_back(std::make_pair(first, second));
                count++;
            }
        }

        if (bpe_merges.empty()) {
            fprintf(stderr, "Error: could not parse file %s\n", filename.c_str());
        }

        return bpe_merges;
    }

    // get max token length available for a prefix of 2 bytes (string at least 2 bytes long)
    int get_max_token_length(const std::string& string) const {
        if (string.size() < 2)
            return -1;
        std::string prefix = string.substr(0, 2);
        if (max_token_length.find(prefix) == max_token_length.end())
            return 0;
        return max_token_length.at(prefix);
    }

    // function to find if two tokens match in bpe_rank, return rank or -1
    int find_bpe_rank(const std::string& token1, const std::string& token2) const 
    {
        std::string left_token = token1;
        std::string right_token = token2;
        left_token = replaceAll(left_token, " ", "Ġ");
        left_token = replaceAll(left_token, "\n", "Ċ");
        right_token = replaceAll(right_token, " ", "Ġ");
        right_token = replaceAll(right_token, "\n", "Ċ");

        auto it = bpe_ranks.find(std::make_pair(left_token, right_token));
        if (it == bpe_ranks.end())
            return -1;
        return it->second;
    }


    std::pair<falcon_vocab::id, std::string> find_longest_match(const std::string& snippet) const {
        TrieNode* current = trie.root;
        falcon_vocab::id last_matched_id = -1;
        std::string last_matched_token = "";
        std::string current_token = "";
        for (auto ch : snippet) {
            if (current->map.find(ch) == current->map.end()) {
                break;
            }
            current = current->map[ch];
            current_token += ch;
            if (current->Id != -1) {
                last_matched_id = current->Id;
                last_matched_token = current_token;
            }
        }
        return {last_matched_id, last_matched_token};
    }

};
#endif
struct falcon_model {
    e_model type = FALCON_UNKNOWN;

    falcon_hparams hparams;

    falcon_vocab vocab;

    struct ggml_tensor* tok_embeddings;
    struct ggml_tensor* output_norm;
    struct ggml_tensor* output_norm_b;
    struct ggml_tensor* lm_head;

    std::vector<falcon_layer> layers;

    int n_gpu_layers;
    int i_gpu_start;
    int i_gpu_last;

    // context
    struct ggml_context * ctx = NULL;
    std::map<std::string, struct ggml_tensor*> tensors;

    // key + value cache for the self attention
    // TODO: move to llama_state
    struct falcon_kv_cache kv_self;

    // the model memory buffer
    llama_ctx_buffer buf;

    // model memory mapped file
    std::unique_ptr<llama_mmap> mapping;

    // objects representing data potentially being locked in memory
    llama_mlock mlock_buf;
    llama_mlock mlock_mmap;

    // for quantize-stats only
    std::vector<std::pair<std::string, struct ggml_tensor *>> tensors_by_name;


    ~falcon_model() {
        if (ctx) {
            ggml_free(ctx);
        }

#ifdef GGML_USE_CUBLAS
        for (size_t i = 0; i < tensors_by_name.size(); ++i) {
            ggml_cuda_free_data(tensors_by_name[i].second);
        }
#elif defined(GGML_USE_CLBLAST)
        for (size_t i = 0; i < tensors_by_name.size(); ++i) {
            ggml_cl_free_data(tensors_by_name[i].second);
        }
#endif
    }
};


struct falcon_context {
    falcon_context(falcon_model &model, falcon_vocab &vocab)
        : model(model), vocab(vocab) { 
    }
    std::string context_name = "default";
    std::mt19937 rng;

    int64_t t_load_us = 0;
    int64_t t_start_us = 0;
    bool has_evaluated_once = false;

    int64_t t_sample_us = 0;
    int64_t t_eval_us   = 0;
    int64_t t_p_eval_us = 0;

    int32_t n_sample = 0; // number of tokens sampled
    int32_t n_eval   = 0; // number of eval calls
    int32_t n_p_eval = 0; // number of tokens in eval calls for the prompt (with batch size > 1)

    falcon_model &model;
    falcon_vocab &vocab;

    size_t mem_per_token = 0;

    // decode output (2-dimensional array: [n_tokens][n_vocab])
    std::vector<float> logits;
    bool logits_all = false;

    // input embedding (1-dimensional array: [n_embd])
    std::vector<float> embedding;

    // memory buffers used to evaluate the model
    // TODO: move in llama_state
    llama_ctx_buffer buf_compute;
    llama_ctx_buffer buf_scratch[LLAMA_MAX_SCRATCH_BUFFERS];

#ifdef GGML_USE_METAL
    ggml_metal_context * ctx_metal = NULL;
#endif

    int    buf_last = 0;
    size_t buf_max_size[LLAMA_MAX_SCRATCH_BUFFERS] = { 0 };

    void use_buf(struct ggml_context * ctx, int i) {
#if defined(LLAMA_USE_SCRATCH)
        size_t last_size = 0;

        if (i == -1) {
            last_size = ggml_set_scratch(ctx, { 0, 0, nullptr, });
        } else {
            auto & buf = buf_scratch[i];
            last_size = ggml_set_scratch(ctx, { 0, buf.size, buf.addr, });
        }

        if (buf_last >= 0) {
            buf_max_size[buf_last] = std::max(buf_max_size[buf_last], last_size);
        }

        buf_last = i;
#else
        (void) i;
        (void) ctx;
#endif
    }

    size_t get_buf_max_mem(int i) const {
#if defined(LLAMA_USE_SCRATCH)
        return buf_max_size[i];
#else
        (void) i;
        return 0;
#endif
    }
};


template <typename T>
static T checked_mul(T a, T b) {
    T ret = a * b;
    if (a != 0 && ret / a != b) {
        throw std::runtime_error(format("overflow multiplying %llu * %llu",
                     (unsigned long long) a, (unsigned long long) b));
    }
    return ret;
}

static size_t checked_div(size_t a, size_t b) {
    if (b == 0 || a % b != 0) {
        throw std::runtime_error(format("error dividing %zu / %zu", a, b));
    }
    return a / b;
}

static std::string llama_format_tensor_shape(const std::vector<uint32_t> & ne) {
    char buf[256];
    snprintf(buf, sizeof(buf), "%5u", ne.at(0));
    for (size_t i = 1; i < ne.size(); i++) {
        snprintf(buf + strlen(buf), sizeof(buf) - strlen(buf), " x %5u", ne.at(i));
    }
    return buf;
}

static size_t llama_calc_tensor_size(const std::vector<uint32_t> & ne, enum ggml_type type) {
    size_t size = ggml_type_size(type);
    for (uint32_t dim : ne) {
        size = checked_mul<size_t>(size, dim);
    }
    return size / ggml_blck_size(type);
}

struct llama_load_tensor_shard {
    std::vector<uint32_t> ne;
    size_t size;
    enum ggml_type type;
    size_t file_idx;
    size_t file_off;

    void calc_size() {
        size = llama_calc_tensor_size(ne, type);
    }
};

enum llama_split_type {
    SPLIT_NONE,
    SPLIT_BY_COLUMNS,
    SPLIT_BY_ROWS
};

struct falcon_load_tensor {
    std::vector<llama_load_tensor_shard> shards;

    std::string name;
    enum ggml_type type = GGML_TYPE_F32;
    llama_split_type split_type = SPLIT_NONE;
    std::vector<uint32_t> ne;
    size_t size;
    struct ggml_tensor * ggml_tensor = NULL;
    uint8_t * data;

    falcon_load_tensor(const std::string & name) : name(name) {}

    void calc_all() {
        calc_type();
        calc_split_type();
        calc_ne();
        calc_size();
    }

    void calc_type() {
        const auto & first_shard = shards.at(0);
        for (const auto & shard : shards) {
            if (shard.type != first_shard.type) {
                throw std::runtime_error(format("inconsistent tensor shard type in '%s'", name.c_str()));
            }
        }
        type = first_shard.type;
    }

    void calc_split_type() {
        if (shards.at(0).ne.size() == 1 || // 1D tensors are just duplicated in every file
            shards.size() == 1) { // only one file?
            split_type = SPLIT_NONE;
        } else if (name.find("tok_embeddings.") == 0 ||
            name.find(".attention.wo.weight") != std::string::npos ||
            name.find(".feed_forward.w2.weight") != std::string::npos) {
            split_type = SPLIT_BY_COLUMNS;
        } else {
            split_type = SPLIT_BY_ROWS;
        }
    }

    void calc_ne() {
        const auto & first_shard = shards.at(0);
        for (const auto & shard : shards) {
            if (shard.ne != first_shard.ne) {
                throw std::runtime_error(format("inconsistent tensor shard shape in '%s': first was %s, other was %s",
                             name.c_str(), llama_format_tensor_shape(first_shard.ne).c_str(), llama_format_tensor_shape(shard.ne).c_str()));
            }
        }
        ne = first_shard.ne;
        FALCON_ASSERT(shards.size() <= UINT32_MAX);
        uint32_t n_shards = (uint32_t) shards.size();
        switch (split_type) {
            case SPLIT_NONE:
                ne = first_shard.ne;
                break;
            case SPLIT_BY_COLUMNS:
                ne = {checked_mul<uint32_t>(first_shard.ne[0], n_shards),
                      first_shard.ne[1]};
                break;
            case SPLIT_BY_ROWS:
                ne = {first_shard.ne[0],
                      checked_mul<uint32_t>(first_shard.ne[1], n_shards)};
                break;
        }
    }

    void calc_size() {
        size = llama_calc_tensor_size(ne, type);
    }
};

struct llama_load_tensors_map {
    // tensors is kept in a separate vector to preserve file order
    std::vector<falcon_load_tensor> tensors;
    std::unordered_map<std::string, size_t> name_to_idx;
};

enum llama_file_version {
    LLAMA_FILE_VERSION_GGML, // ftype incompatible when using the current falcon converter, remainder is ggml format
    LLAMA_FILE_VERSION_GGMF_V1, // added version field and scores in vocab
    LLAMA_FILE_VERSION_GGJT_V1, // added padding
    LLAMA_FILE_VERSION_GGJT_V2, // changed quantization format
    LLAMA_FILE_VERSION_GGJT_V3, // changed Q4 and Q8 quantization format
    RESERVED_1,
    RESERVED_2,
    RESERVED_3,
    RESERVED_4,
    RESERVED_5,
    FALCON_FILE_VERSION_GGCC_V1 // for new falcon tokenizer

};


struct falcon_file_loader {
    llama_file file;
    llama_file_version file_version;
    falcon_hparams hparams;
    falcon_vocab vocab;
    const char * fname;

    falcon_file_loader(const char * fname, size_t file_idx, llama_load_tensors_map & tensors_map)
        : file(fname, "rb") {
        fprintf(stderr, "falcon.cpp: loading model from %s\n", fname);
        this->fname = fname;
        read_magic();
        if (file_version <= 1)
            fprintf(stderr, "falcon.cpp: file version %d - loading foundation model for quantization only\n", file_version);
        else
            fprintf(stderr, "falcon.cpp: file version %d\n", file_version);
        read_hparams();
        read_vocab();
        read_tensor_metadata(file_idx, tensors_map);
    }
    void read_magic() {
        uint32_t magic = file.read_u32();

        if (magic == LLAMA_FILE_MAGIC_GGML) {
            file_version = LLAMA_FILE_VERSION_GGML;
            return;
        }

        uint32_t version = file.read_u32();
        switch (magic) {
            case LLAMA_FILE_MAGIC_GGMF:
                switch (version) {
                    case 1: file_version = LLAMA_FILE_VERSION_GGMF_V1; return;
                }
                break;
            case LLAMA_FILE_MAGIC_GGJT:
                switch (version) {
                    case 1: file_version = LLAMA_FILE_VERSION_GGJT_V1; return;
                    case 2: file_version = LLAMA_FILE_VERSION_GGJT_V2; return;
                    case 3: file_version = LLAMA_FILE_VERSION_GGJT_V3; return;
                    break;
                }
                break;
            case FALCON_FILE_MAGIC_GGCC:
                switch (version) {
                    // we start at 10 to avoid confusion with the old GGJT format
                    case 10: file_version = FALCON_FILE_VERSION_GGCC_V1; return;
                    break;
                }
                break;
        }


        throw std::runtime_error(format("unknown (magic, version) combination: %08x, %08x; is this really a GGML file?",
                     magic, version));
    }
    void read_hparams() {
        hparams.n_vocab = file.read_u32();
        hparams.n_embd = file.read_u32();
        hparams.n_head = file.read_u32();
        hparams.n_head_kv = file.read_u32();
        hparams.n_layer = file.read_u32();
        hparams.n_falcon_type = file.read_u32();
        if (file_version == LLAMA_FILE_VERSION_GGML)
        {
            int32_t ftype = file.read_u32();
            const int32_t qntvr = ftype / GGML_QNT_VERSION_FACTOR;
            hparams.ftype = (enum llama_ftype) (qntvr);
        } else
        {
            hparams.ftype = (enum llama_ftype) file.read_u32();
        }
        if (file_version >= FALCON_FILE_VERSION_GGCC_V1) {
            hparams.n_bpe_merges = file.read_u32();
        }
    }
    void read_vocab() {
        vocab.id_to_token.resize(hparams.n_vocab);
        for (uint32_t i = 0; i < (uint32_t)hparams.n_vocab; i++) {
            uint32_t len = file.read_u32();
            std::string word = file.read_string(len);
            // the vocab is not identical to HF, the whitespace prefix is an actual #20 space
            float score = 0.0f; // flacon does not have scores in vocab, scores are a sentencepiece addition
            if (file_version >= LLAMA_FILE_VERSION_GGMF_V1) {
                file.read_raw(&score, sizeof(score));
            }
            vocab.token_to_id[word] = i;

            auto & tok_score = vocab.id_to_token[i];
            tok_score.tok = std::move(word);
            tok_score.score = score;
        }
        if (file_version >= LLAMA_FILE_VERSION_GGJT_V3 && hparams.n_vocab == 65025 && vocab.id_to_token[65024].tok == "[PAD]") {
            // wizard hack - shaving off one token
            vocab.id_to_token.resize(65024);
            vocab.token_to_id.erase("[PAD]");
            hparams.n_vocab = 65024;
            // this needs a followup of the tensors itself, quality of the model affected needs to be tested
        }
        if (file_version >= FALCON_FILE_VERSION_GGCC_V1)
        {
            // similar to vocab the merges are read
            std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>> bpe_merges;
            int32_t num_bpe_merges = file.read_u32();
            for (int i = 0; i < num_bpe_merges; i++) {
                uint32_t len1 = file.read_u32();
                std::string word1 = file.read_string(len1);
                uint32_t len2 = file.read_u32();
                std::string word2 = file.read_string(len2);
                bpe_merges.push_back(std::make_pair(word1, word2));
            }
            vocab.populate_bpe_ranks(bpe_merges);
        } else
        {
            // same path as model file, we need to cut the filename off from fname:
            fprintf(stderr, "falcon.cpp: fallback for old file format. Loading BPE merges from tokenizer.json\n");
            std::string fname_str(fname);
            size_t last_slash_idx = fname_str.find_last_of("\\/");
            std::string parent_path = fname_str.substr(0, last_slash_idx);
            std::string tokenizer_json_path = parent_path + "/tokenizer.json";
            auto merges = vocab.parse_json_to_bpe_merges(tokenizer_json_path);
            if (merges.empty()) {
                fprintf(stderr, "falcon.cpp: error: old file format. Place json data in directory: %s\n", tokenizer_json_path.c_str());
                #if defined(GGML_USE_CUBLAS)
                while (!ggml_init_cublas(true)) std::this_thread::sleep_for(std::chrono::milliseconds(50));
                #endif
                exit(1);
            }
            int num_bpe_merges = vocab.populate_bpe_ranks(merges);
            if (num_bpe_merges == 0) {
                fprintf(stderr, "falcon.cpp: error: old file format, no valid BPE merges found in %s\n", tokenizer_json_path.c_str());
                #if defined(GGML_USE_CUBLAS)
                while (!ggml_init_cublas(true)) std::this_thread::sleep_for(std::chrono::milliseconds(50));
                #endif
                exit(1);
            }
            hparams.n_bpe_merges = num_bpe_merges;
        }
        
        #if 1
        vocab.populate_trie_from_map();
        #endif
    }
    void read_tensor_metadata(size_t file_idx, llama_load_tensors_map & tensors_map) {
        while (file.tell() < file.size) {
            llama_load_tensor_shard shard;
            uint32_t n_dims = file.read_u32();
            uint32_t name_len = file.read_u32();
            shard.type = (enum ggml_type) file.read_u32();
            shard.ne.resize(n_dims);
            file.read_raw(shard.ne.data(), sizeof(shard.ne[0]) * n_dims);
            std::string name = file.read_string(name_len);
            if (n_dims < 1 || n_dims > 2) {
                throw std::runtime_error(format("falcon.cpp: tensor '%s' should not be %u-dimensional", name.c_str(), n_dims));
            }
            switch (shard.type) {
                case GGML_TYPE_F32:
                case GGML_TYPE_F16:
                case GGML_TYPE_Q4_0:
                case GGML_TYPE_Q4_1:
                case GGML_TYPE_Q5_0:
                case GGML_TYPE_Q5_1:
                case GGML_TYPE_Q8_0:
                case GGML_TYPE_Q2_K:
                case GGML_TYPE_Q3_K:
                case GGML_TYPE_Q4_K:
                case GGML_TYPE_Q5_K:
                case GGML_TYPE_Q6_K:
                    break;
                default: {
                    throw std::runtime_error(format("unrecognized tensor type %u\n", shard.type));
                }
            }

            if (file_version >= LLAMA_FILE_VERSION_GGJT_V1) {
                // skip to the next multiple of 32 bytes
                file.seek(-static_cast<ptrdiff_t>(file.tell()) & 31, SEEK_CUR);
            }
            shard.file_idx = file_idx;
            shard.file_off = file.tell();

            shard.calc_size();
            file.seek(shard.size, SEEK_CUR);

            auto it = tensors_map.name_to_idx.find(name);
            size_t idx;
            if (it != tensors_map.name_to_idx.end()) {
                idx = it->second;
            } else {
                tensors_map.tensors.emplace_back(name);
                idx = tensors_map.tensors.size() - 1;
                tensors_map.name_to_idx.emplace(name, idx);
            }
            tensors_map.tensors.at(idx).shards.push_back(shard);
        }
    }
};

struct llama_file_saver {
    llama_file file;
    falcon_file_loader * any_file_loader;
    llama_file_saver(const char * fname, falcon_file_loader * any_file_loader, enum llama_ftype new_ftype)
        : file(fname, "wb"), any_file_loader(any_file_loader) {
        any_file_loader->file_version = LLAMA_FILE_VERSION;
        fprintf(stderr, "falcon.cpp: saving model to %s\n", fname);
        write_magic();
        write_hparams(new_ftype);
        write_vocab();
    }
    void write_magic() {
        file.write_u32(LLAMA_FILE_MAGIC);   // magic
        file.write_u32(LLAMA_FILE_VERSION); // version
    }
    void write_hparams(enum llama_ftype new_ftype) {
        const falcon_hparams & hparams = any_file_loader->hparams;
        file.write_u32(hparams.n_vocab);
        file.write_u32(hparams.n_embd);
        file.write_u32(hparams.n_head);
        file.write_u32(hparams.n_head_kv);
        file.write_u32(hparams.n_layer);
        file.write_u32(hparams.n_falcon_type);
        file.write_u32(new_ftype);
        if (any_file_loader->file_version >= FALCON_FILE_VERSION_GGCC_V1) {
            file.write_u32(hparams.n_bpe_merges);
        }
    }
    void write_vocab() {
        if (any_file_loader->file_version == LLAMA_FILE_VERSION_GGML) {
            // fprintf(stderr, "falcon.cpp: WARNING: input is an old file that doesn't have scores; will add dummy scores\n");
        }
        uint32_t n_vocab = any_file_loader->hparams.n_vocab;
        for (uint32_t i = 0; i < n_vocab; i++) {
            const auto & token = any_file_loader->vocab.id_to_token.at(i);
            file.write_u32((uint32_t) token.tok.size());
            file.write_raw(token.tok.data(), token.tok.size());
            file.write_raw(&token.score, sizeof(token.score));
        }
        if (any_file_loader->file_version >= FALCON_FILE_VERSION_GGCC_V1) 
        {
            file.write_u32(any_file_loader->hparams.n_bpe_merges);
            for (int32_t i = 0; i < any_file_loader->hparams.n_bpe_merges; i++) {
                const auto & bpe_merge = any_file_loader->vocab.bpe_merges.at(i);
                file.write_u32((uint32_t) bpe_merge.first.size());
                file.write_raw(bpe_merge.first.data(), bpe_merge.first.size());
                file.write_u32((uint32_t) bpe_merge.second.size());
                file.write_raw(bpe_merge.second.data(), bpe_merge.second.size());
            }
        }
    }
    void write_tensor(falcon_load_tensor & tensor, enum ggml_type new_type, const void * new_data, size_t new_size) {
        switch (new_type) {
            case GGML_TYPE_F32:
            case GGML_TYPE_F16:
            case GGML_TYPE_Q4_0:
            case GGML_TYPE_Q4_1:
            case GGML_TYPE_Q5_0:
            case GGML_TYPE_Q5_1:
            case GGML_TYPE_Q8_0:
            case GGML_TYPE_Q2_K:
            case GGML_TYPE_Q3_K:
            case GGML_TYPE_Q4_K:
            case GGML_TYPE_Q5_K:
            case GGML_TYPE_Q6_K:
                break;
            default: FALCON_ASSERT(false);
        }
        file.write_u32((uint32_t) tensor.ne.size());
        file.write_u32((uint32_t) tensor.name.size());
        file.write_u32(new_type);
        file.write_raw(tensor.ne.data(), sizeof(tensor.ne[0]) * tensor.ne.size());
        file.write_raw(tensor.name.data(), tensor.name.size());
        file.seek(-static_cast<ptrdiff_t>(file.tell()) & 31, SEEK_CUR);
        FALCON_ASSERT(new_size == llama_calc_tensor_size(tensor.ne, new_type));
        file.write_raw(new_data, new_size);
    }
};

struct llama_model_loader {
    std::vector<std::unique_ptr<falcon_file_loader>> file_loaders;
    llama_load_tensors_map tensors_map;
    bool use_mmap;
    size_t num_ggml_tensors_created = 0;
    struct ggml_context * ggml_ctx = NULL;
    std::unique_ptr<llama_mmap> mapping;

    llama_model_loader(const std::string & fname_base, bool use_mmap, bool vocab_only) {
        auto * first_file = new falcon_file_loader(fname_base.c_str(), 0, tensors_map);
        file_loaders.emplace_back(first_file);
        uint32_t n_parts = vocab_only ? 1 : guess_n_parts();
        for (uint32_t i = 1; i < n_parts; i++) {
            std::string fname = fname_base + "." + std::to_string(i);
            auto * ith_file = new falcon_file_loader(fname.c_str(), i, tensors_map);
            file_loaders.emplace_back(ith_file);
            if (ith_file->hparams != first_file->hparams) {
                throw std::runtime_error(format("falcon.cpp: hparams inconsistent between files"));
            }
        }
        if (!llama_mmap::SUPPORTED) {
            use_mmap = false;
        }
        if (use_mmap && alignment_prevents_mmap()) {
            fprintf(stderr, "falcon.cpp: can't use mmap because tensors are not aligned; convert to new format to avoid this\n");
            use_mmap = false;
        }
        this->use_mmap = use_mmap;
        for (falcon_load_tensor & lt : tensors_map.tensors) {
            lt.calc_all();
        }
    }

    bool alignment_prevents_mmap() {
        for (const falcon_load_tensor & lt : tensors_map.tensors) {
            for (const llama_load_tensor_shard & shard : lt.shards) {
                if (shard.file_off & 3) {
                    return true;
                }
            }
        }
        return false;
    }

    uint32_t guess_n_parts() const {
        auto it = tensors_map.name_to_idx.find("transformer.word_embeddings.weight");
        if (it == tensors_map.name_to_idx.end()) {
            throw std::runtime_error(std::string("missing word_embeddings.weight"));
        }
        const falcon_load_tensor & lt = tensors_map.tensors.at(it->second);
        return file_loaders.at(0)->hparams.n_embd / lt.shards.at(0).ne.at(0);
    }

    void calc_sizes(size_t * ctx_size_p, size_t * mmapped_size_p) const {
        *ctx_size_p = *mmapped_size_p = 0;
        for (const falcon_load_tensor & lt : tensors_map.tensors) {
            *ctx_size_p += ggml_tensor_overhead();
            *(use_mmap ? mmapped_size_p : ctx_size_p) += lt.size;
        }
    }

    struct ggml_tensor * get_tensor(const std::string & name, const std::vector<uint32_t> & ne, ggml_backend backend) {
        auto it = tensors_map.name_to_idx.find(name);
        if (it == tensors_map.name_to_idx.end()) {
            throw std::runtime_error(std::runtime_error(format("falcon.cpp: tensor '%s' is missing from model", name.c_str())));
        }
        falcon_load_tensor & lt = tensors_map.tensors.at(it->second);
        // special case - wizard padding token - todo: move into quantizer only (only with mmap versions)
        if (!use_mmap || lt.ne.size() != 2 || ne.size() != 2 || !((ne[0] == 8192 && ne[1] == 65024  && lt.ne[0] == 8192 && lt.ne[1] == 65025) || (ne[0] == 4544 && ne[1] == 65024  && lt.ne[0] == 4544 && lt.ne[1] == 65025)))
        if (lt.ne != ne) {
            throw std::runtime_error(format("falcon.cpp: tensor '%s' has wrong shape; expected %s, got %s",
                         name.c_str(), llama_format_tensor_shape(ne).c_str(), llama_format_tensor_shape(lt.ne).c_str()));
        }
        // printf("Tensor: %-70s %s\n", name.c_str(), llama_format_tensor_shape(lt.ne).c_str());

        return get_tensor_for(lt, backend);
    }

    struct ggml_tensor * get_tensor_for(falcon_load_tensor & lt, ggml_backend backend) {
        struct ggml_tensor * tensor;
        if (backend != GGML_BACKEND_CPU) {
            ggml_set_no_alloc(ggml_ctx, true);
        }
        if (lt.ne.size() == 2) {
            if (use_mmap && lt.ne[0] == 8192 && lt.ne[1] == 65025 && (lt.name.find("transformer.word_embeddings.weight") == 0 || lt.name.find("lm_head.weight") == 0))
            {
                // TODO: evaluate if we lose perplexity from the changed shape
                tensor = ggml_new_tensor_2d(ggml_ctx, lt.type, 8192, 65024);
                fprintf(stderr, "falcon.cpp: Special mode: Wizard-type finetuning - changing tensor shape\n");
            } else
            if (use_mmap && lt.ne[0] == 4544 && lt.ne[1] == 65025 && (lt.name.find("transformer.word_embeddings.weight") == 0 || lt.name.find("lm_head.weight") == 0))
            {
                // TODO: evaluate if we lose perplexity from the changed shape
                tensor = ggml_new_tensor_2d(ggml_ctx, lt.type, 4544, 65024);
                fprintf(stderr, "falcon.cpp: Special mode: Wizard-type finetuning - changing tensor shape\n");
            } else
            {
                tensor = ggml_new_tensor_2d(ggml_ctx, lt.type, lt.ne.at(0), lt.ne.at(1));
            }
        } else {
            FALCON_ASSERT(lt.ne.size() == 1);
            tensor = ggml_new_tensor_1d(ggml_ctx, lt.type, lt.ne.at(0));
        }
        
        ggml_set_name(tensor, lt.name.c_str());
        if (lt.name.find("transformer.h.") == 0) {
            size_t dot_pos = lt.name.find('.', 16);
            if (dot_pos != std::string::npos) {
                // tensor->meta.layer_id = std::stoi(lt.name.substr(7, dot_pos - 7)) + 1; // we use layer start at 1 not 0
            }
            std::string short_name = lt.name.substr(dot_pos + 1);
            std::string::size_type weight_pos = short_name.find(".weight");
            std::string::size_type bias_pos = short_name.find(".bias");

            if (weight_pos != std::string::npos) {
                short_name.replace(weight_pos, 7, ".w");
            }
            if (bias_pos != std::string::npos) {
                short_name.replace(bias_pos, 5, ".b");
            }
            strncpy(tensor->meta.short_name, short_name.c_str(), GGML_MAX_NAME);
            tensor->meta.short_name[GGML_MAX_NAME-1] = 0;
        } 
            
        // printf("falcon.cpp: creating tensor %s\n", lt.name.c_str());
        FALCON_ASSERT(lt.ggml_tensor == NULL ); // if this fails, we called get_tensor twice on the same tensor

        if (backend != GGML_BACKEND_CPU) {
            ggml_set_no_alloc(ggml_ctx, use_mmap);
        }
        tensor->backend = backend;
        lt.ggml_tensor = tensor;
        num_ggml_tensors_created++;
        return tensor;
    }

    void verify_correct_load() const {
        if (num_ggml_tensors_created != tensors_map.tensors.size()) {
            throw std::runtime_error(std::string("falcon.cpp: file contained more tensors than expected"));
        }
    }

    void load_all_data(falcon_progress_callback progress_callback, void *  progress_callback_user_data, llama_mlock * lmlock) {
        size_t data_size = 0;
        size_t prefetch_size = 0;
        size_t lock_size = 0;
        for (const falcon_load_tensor & lt : tensors_map.tensors) {
            data_size += lt.size;
            if (lt.ggml_tensor->backend == GGML_BACKEND_CPU) {
                prefetch_size += lt.size;
            }
        }

        if (use_mmap) {
            mapping.reset(new llama_mmap(&file_loaders.at(0)->file, prefetch_size));
            if (lmlock) {
                lmlock->init(mapping->addr);
            }
        }

        size_t done_size = 0;
        for (falcon_load_tensor & lt : tensors_map.tensors) {
            if (progress_callback) {
                const char *status="";
                if (lt.ggml_tensor->backend == GGML_BACKEND_CPU) 
                    status = "Loading tensor (CPU)";
                else if (lt.ggml_tensor->backend == GGML_BACKEND_GPU)
                    status = "Loading tensor (GPU-Main)";
                else if (lt.ggml_tensor->backend == GGML_BACKEND_GPU_SPLIT)
                    status = "Loading tensor (GPU-Split)";

                progress_callback((float) done_size / data_size, progress_callback_user_data,status);
            }
            FALCON_ASSERT(lt.ggml_tensor); // unused tensors should have been caught by load_data already
            lt.data = (uint8_t *) lt.ggml_tensor->data;

            // allocate temp buffer if not using mmap
            if (!use_mmap && lt.data == NULL) {
                GGML_ASSERT(lt.ggml_tensor->backend != GGML_BACKEND_CPU);
                lt.data = (uint8_t*)malloc(ggml_nbytes(lt.ggml_tensor));
            }

            load_data_for(lt);

            switch(lt.ggml_tensor->backend) {
                case GGML_BACKEND_CPU:
                    lt.ggml_tensor->data = lt.data;
                    if (use_mmap && lmlock) {
                        lock_size += lt.size;
                        lmlock->grow_to(lock_size);
                    }
                    break;
#if defined(GGML_USE_CUBLAS)
                case GGML_BACKEND_GPU:
                case GGML_BACKEND_GPU_SPLIT:
                // there is no downside assigning the host pointer as long as we've the RAM to hold the mmap region
                lt.ggml_tensor->data = lt.data;
                    ggml_cuda_transform_tensor(lt.data, lt.ggml_tensor);
                    if (!use_mmap) {
                        free(lt.data);
                    }
                    break;
#elif defined(GGML_USE_CLBLAST)
                case GGML_BACKEND_GPU:
                    ggml_cl_transform_tensor(lt.data, lt.ggml_tensor);
                    if (!use_mmap) {
                        free(lt.data);
                    }
                    break;
#endif
                default:
                    continue;
            }

            done_size += lt.size;
        }
    }

    void load_data_for(falcon_load_tensor & lt) {
        if (use_mmap) {
            FALCON_ASSERT(lt.shards.size() == 1);
            lt.data = (uint8_t *) mapping->addr + lt.shards.at(0).file_off;
        } else if (lt.split_type == SPLIT_NONE) {
            llama_file & file = file_loaders.at(lt.shards.at(0).file_idx)->file;
            file.seek(lt.shards.at(0).file_off, SEEK_SET);
            file.read_raw(lt.data, lt.size);
        } else if (lt.split_type == SPLIT_BY_ROWS) {
            size_t offset = 0;
            for (llama_load_tensor_shard & shard : lt.shards) {
                llama_file & file = file_loaders.at(shard.file_idx)->file;
                file.seek(shard.file_off, SEEK_SET);
                file.read_raw(lt.data + offset, shard.size);
                offset += shard.size;
            }
            FALCON_ASSERT(offset == lt.size);
        } else if (lt.split_type == SPLIT_BY_COLUMNS) {
            // Let's load the data into temporary buffers to ensure the OS performs large loads.
            std::vector<llama_buffer> tmp_bufs(lt.shards.size());
            for (size_t i = 0; i < lt.shards.size(); i++) {
                llama_load_tensor_shard & shard = lt.shards.at(i);
                llama_file & file = file_loaders.at(shard.file_idx)->file;
                file.seek(shard.file_off, SEEK_SET);
                tmp_bufs.at(i).resize(shard.size);
                file.read_raw(tmp_bufs.at(i).addr, shard.size);
            }
            // Then reshape.
            size_t num_rows = lt.ne.at(1);
            size_t per_shard_row_size = lt.shards.at(0).size / num_rows;
            size_t out_offset = 0;
            for (size_t row = 0; row < num_rows; row++) {
                for (llama_buffer & tmp_buf : tmp_bufs) {
                    memcpy(lt.data + out_offset,
                           tmp_buf.addr + row * per_shard_row_size,
                           per_shard_row_size);
                    out_offset += per_shard_row_size;
                }
            }
            FALCON_ASSERT(out_offset == lt.size);
        }
        if (0) {
            print_checksum(lt);
        }
    }

    static void print_checksum(falcon_load_tensor & lt) {
        uint32_t sum = 0;
        for (size_t i = 0; i < lt.size; i++) {
            uint8_t byte = lt.data[i];
            sum = byte + (sum << 6) + (sum << 16) - sum; // sdbm hash
        }
        fprintf(stderr, "%s checksum: %#08x (%s, size %zu)\n", lt.name.c_str(), sum,
                llama_format_tensor_shape(lt.ne).c_str(), lt.size);
    }

};


//
// kv cache
//

static bool kv_cache_init(
        const struct falcon_hparams & hparams,
             struct falcon_kv_cache & cache,
                         ggml_type   wtype,
                               int   n_ctx,
                               int   n_gpu_layers) {

    const int64_t n_layer = hparams.n_layer;
    const int64_t head_dim = hparams.n_embd / hparams.n_head;
    const int64_t n_elements =  hparams.n_layer * n_ctx * head_dim * hparams.n_head_kv;

    cache.buf.resize(MEM_REQ_KV_SELF(hparams, wtype, n_ctx));

    struct ggml_init_params params;
    params.mem_size   = cache.buf.size;
    params.mem_buffer = cache.buf.addr;
    params.no_alloc   = false;

    cache.ctx = ggml_init(params);

    if (!cache.ctx) {
        fprintf(stderr, "%s: failed to allocate memory for kv cache\n", __func__);
        return false;
    }

    cache.k = ggml_new_tensor_1d(cache.ctx, wtype, n_elements);
    #ifdef FALCON_NO_KV_UPGRADE
    cache.v = ggml_new_tensor_1d(cache.ctx, wtype, n_elements); // only used as reference now
    #else
    cache.v = ggml_new_tensor_1d(cache.ctx, wtype, 0); // only used as reference now
    #endif
    cache.v_a = ggml_new_tensor_1d(cache.ctx, wtype, n_elements);
    cache.v_b = ggml_new_tensor_1d(cache.ctx, wtype, n_elements);
    ggml_set_name(cache.k, "cache_k");
    ggml_set_name(cache.v, "cache_v");
    ggml_set_name(cache.v_a, "cache_v_a");
    ggml_set_name(cache.v_b, "cache_v_b");

    (void) n_gpu_layers;
#ifdef GGML_USE_CUBLAS
// TODO : gpu kv offloading not implemented
    if (n_gpu_layers > n_layer + 1) {
        ggml_cuda_assign_buffers_no_scratch(cache.k);
        ggml_cuda_assign_buffers_no_scratch(cache.v);
        ggml_cuda_assign_buffers_no_scratch(cache.v_a);
        ggml_cuda_assign_buffers_no_scratch(cache.v_b);
    }
#endif // GGML_USE_CUBLAS

    return true;
}

struct falcon_context_params falcon_context_default_params() {
    struct falcon_context_params result = {
        /*.n_ctx                       =*/ 512,
        /*.n_batch                     =*/ 512,
        /*.n_gpu_layers                  =*/ 0,
        /*.i_gpu_start                 =*/ -1,
        /*.i_gpu_last                   =*/ -1,
        /*.main_gpu                    =*/ 0,
        /*.tensor_split                =*/ {0},
        /*.seed                        =*/ -1,
        /*.f16_kv                      =*/ false,
        /*.logits_all                  =*/ false,
        /*.vocab_only                  =*/ false,
        /*.use_mmap                    =*/ true,
        /*.use_mlock                   =*/ false,
        /*.embedding                   =*/ false,
        /*.progress_callback           =*/ nullptr,
        /*.progress_callback_user_data =*/ nullptr,
    };

    return result;
}

struct llama_model_quantize_params llama_model_quantize_default_params() {
    struct llama_model_quantize_params result = {
        /*.nthread                     =*/ 0,
        /*.ftype                       =*/ LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q5_1,
        /*.allow_requantize            =*/ false,
        /*.quantize_output_tensor      =*/ true,
    };

    return result;
}

bool llama_mmap_supported() {
    return llama_mmap::SUPPORTED;
}

bool llama_mlock_supported() {
    return llama_mlock::SUPPORTED;
}

void falcon_init_backend() {
    ggml_time_init();

    // needed to initialize f16 tables
    {
        struct ggml_init_params params = { 0, NULL, false };
        struct ggml_context * ctx = ggml_init(params);
        ggml_free(ctx);
    }
}

int64_t llama_time_us() {
    return ggml_time_us();
}

//
// model loading
//

static const char *llama_file_version_name(llama_file_version version) {
    switch (version) {
        case LLAMA_FILE_VERSION_GGML: return "'ggml v0'";
        case LLAMA_FILE_VERSION_GGMF_V1: return "ggml v1";
        case LLAMA_FILE_VERSION_GGJT_V3: return "ggml v3";


        case FALCON_FILE_VERSION_GGCC_V1: return "ggcc v1";
        default: 
        break;
    }

    return "unknown";
}

static const char *llama_ftype_name(enum llama_ftype ftype) {
    switch (ftype) {
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_ALL_F32:     return "all F32";
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_F16:  return "mostly F16";
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q4_0: return "mostly Q4_0";
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q4_1: return "mostly Q4_1";
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q4_1_SOME_F16:
                                      return "mostly Q4_1, some F16";
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q5_0: return "mostly Q5_0";
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q5_1: return "mostly Q5_1";
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q8_0: return "mostly Q8_0";
        // K-quants
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q2_K: return "mostly Q2_K";
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q3_K_S: return "mostly Q3_K - Small";
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q3_K_M: return "mostly Q3_K - Medium";
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q3_K_L: return "mostly Q3_K - Large";
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q4_K_S: return "mostly Q4_K - Small";
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q4_K_M: return "mostly Q4_K - Medium";
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q5_K_S: return "mostly Q5_K - Small";
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q5_K_M: return "mostly Q5_K - Medium";
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q6_K: return "mostly Q6_K";
        default:                      return "unknown, may not work";
    }
}

static const char *falcon_model_type_name(e_model type) {
    switch (type) {
        case FALCON_7B: return "7B";
        case FALCON_40B: return "40B";
        default: FALCON_ASSERT(false);
    }
}

// todo: possibly add that information into ggcc v2 
t_finetune_type falcon_detect_finetune(falcon_context * ctx, std::string model_path) 
{
    std::string model_lower = model_path;
    std::transform(model_lower.begin(), model_lower.end(), model_lower.begin(), ::tolower);

    for (auto const& x : ctx->vocab.special_tokens) {
        if (x.first == "<|prompter|>") {
            return FINETUNE_OPENASSISTANT;
        }
    }
    if (model_lower.find("wizard") != std::string::npos) {
        return FINETUNE_WIZARD;
    }
    if (model_lower.find("oasst1") != std::string::npos) {
        return FINETUNE_OPENASSIST_V1;
    }
    if (model_lower.find("b-instruct") != std::string::npos) {
        return FINETUNE_FALCONINSTRUCT;
    }
    return FINETUNE_UNSPECIFIED;

}

// dynamically gets all tensors from a layer
std::vector<ggml_tensor*> get_tensors_from_layer(falcon_layer& layer) {
    std::vector<ggml_tensor*> tensors;
    ggml_tensor** tensor_ptr = reinterpret_cast<ggml_tensor**>(&layer); // Cast to the pointer to ggml_tensor pointer

    // Iterate through the members and store their addresses in the vector
    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < sizeof(falcon_layer) / sizeof(ggml_tensor*); ++i) {
        tensors.push_back(tensor_ptr[i]);
    }

    return tensors;
}
// get vram size of all tensors in a layer (todo: split handling)
size_t calculate_layer_vram_bytes(const falcon_layer& layer) {
    size_t size = 0;
    auto tensors = get_tensors_from_layer(const_cast<falcon_layer&>(layer));

    // Add the size of each member with GPU backend
    for (const auto& tensor : tensors) {
        if (tensor != nullptr && tensor->backend != GGML_BACKEND_CPU) {
            size += ggml_nbytes(tensor);
        }
    }

    return size;
}

static falcon_model * falcon_model_load_internal(
        const std::string & fname,
        int n_ctx,
        int n_batch,
        int n_gpu_layers,
        int main_gpu,
        ggml_type memory_type,
        bool use_mmap,
        bool use_mlock,
        bool vocab_only,
        falcon_progress_callback progress_callback,
        void * progress_callback_user_data) {
    falcon_model * model_ = new falcon_model();
    falcon_model & model = *model_;
   

    std::unique_ptr<llama_model_loader> ml(new llama_model_loader(fname, use_mmap, vocab_only));

    model.vocab = std::move(ml->file_loaders.at(0)->vocab);
    model.hparams = ml->file_loaders.at(0)->hparams;
    model.n_gpu_layers = n_gpu_layers;

    llama_file_version file_version = ml->file_loaders.at(0)->file_version;
    auto & hparams = model.hparams;

    {
        switch (hparams.n_layer) {
            case 32: model.type = e_model::FALCON_7B; break;
            case 60: model.type = e_model::FALCON_40B; break;
            default:
                {
                    if (hparams.n_falcon_type == 7) {
                        model.type = e_model::FALCON_7B;
                    } else
                    if (hparams.n_falcon_type == 40) {
                        model.type = e_model::FALCON_40B;
                    } else {
                        FALCON_ASSERT(false);
                    }
                } break;
        }

        hparams.n_ctx = n_ctx;
    }

    const uint32_t n_ff = 4 * model.hparams.n_embd;

    {
        fprintf(stderr, "+---------------+------------+---------+---------+-------+--------+---------------+---------+--------+-------+--------+\n");
        fprintf(stderr, "| %13s | %10s | %7s | %7s | %5s | %6s | %13s | %7s | %6s | %5s | %6s |\n",
                "Info", "format", "n_vocab", "n_bpe", "n_ctx", "n_embd", "n_head ; kv", "n_layer", "falcon", "ftype", "n_ff");
        fprintf(stderr, "+---------------+------------+---------+---------+-------+--------+---------------+---------+--------+-------+--------+\n");
        fprintf(stderr, "|               | %10s | %7u | %7u | %5d | %6u | %7u ; %3u | %7u | %2u;%3s | %5u | %6u |\n",
                llama_file_version_name(file_version), hparams.n_vocab, hparams.n_bpe_merges, hparams.n_ctx, hparams.n_embd, hparams.n_head, hparams.n_head_kv, hparams.n_layer, hparams.n_falcon_type,falcon_model_type_name(model.type), hparams.ftype, n_ff);
        fprintf(stderr, "+---------------+------------+---------+---------+-------+--------+---------------+---------+--------+-------+--------+\n");
    }

    if (file_version < LLAMA_FILE_VERSION_GGJT_V3) {
        if (hparams.ftype == LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q4_0 ||
            hparams.ftype == LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q4_1 ||
            hparams.ftype == LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q8_0) {
            throw std::runtime_error(format("this format is no longer supported (see https://github.com/ggerganov/llama.cpp/pull/1508)"));
        }
    }

    if (vocab_only) {
        return model_;
    }

    auto & ctx = model.ctx;
    size_t ctx_size;
    size_t mmapped_size;
    ml->calc_sizes(&ctx_size, &mmapped_size);
    fprintf(stderr, "%s: ggml ctx size = %7.2f MB (mmap size = %7.2f MB)\n", __func__, ctx_size/MB*1.0, mmapped_size/MB*1.0);
    

    // create the ggml context
    {
        model.buf.resize(ctx_size);
        if (use_mlock) {
            model.mlock_buf.init(model.buf.addr);
            model.mlock_buf.grow_to(model.buf.size);
        }

        struct ggml_init_params ggml_params = {
            /*.mem_size   =*/ model.buf.size,
            /*.mem_buffer =*/ model.buf.addr,
            /*.no_alloc   =*/ ml->use_mmap,
        };

        model.ctx = ggml_init(ggml_params);
        if (!model.ctx) {
            throw std::runtime_error(format("ggml_init() failed"));
        }
    }

    (void) main_gpu;
#if defined(GGML_USE_CUBLAS)
    if (n_gpu_layers > 0)
        fprintf(stderr, "%s: using CUDA for GPU acceleration\n", __func__);
    ggml_cuda_set_main_device(main_gpu);
#define LLAMA_BACKEND_OFFLOAD       GGML_BACKEND_GPU
#define LLAMA_BACKEND_OFFLOAD_SPLIT GGML_BACKEND_GPU_SPLIT
#elif defined(GGML_USE_CLBLAST)
    fprintf(stderr, "%s: using OpenCL for GPU acceleration\n", __func__);
#define LLAMA_BACKEND_OFFLOAD       GGML_BACKEND_GPU
#define LLAMA_BACKEND_OFFLOAD_SPLIT GGML_BACKEND_GPU
#else
#define LLAMA_BACKEND_OFFLOAD       GGML_BACKEND_CPU
#define LLAMA_BACKEND_OFFLOAD_SPLIT GGML_BACKEND_CPU
#endif

    
    int64_t vram_reserved=128*MB;    // that amount of VRAM is to stay free on GPU (needs to become a user parameter)
    size_t vram_overhead = 32*MB;    // this amount of vram is estimated for non weight storage buffers on VRAM
    size_t vram_free = 0; // for vram simulation below

#if defined(GGML_USE_CUBLAS)
    ggml_cuda_update_gpu_status(-1);
    const GPUStatus *system_gpu_status = ggml_cuda_get_system_gpu_status();
    vram_free = system_gpu_status->total_free_vram;

    if (system_gpu_status->device_vram_reserved[main_gpu] != 0)
    {
        vram_reserved = system_gpu_status->device_vram_reserved[main_gpu];
    }
    // cublas is used in 16 bit mode, temporary cuda storage/conversion buffers are needed for batch ingestion ( could be run in 16 bit mode without performance downgrade and save half the VRAM)

    if (system_gpu_status->num_devices > 0)
    {
        fprintf(stderr, "%s: VRAM free: %7.2f MB  of %7.2f MB (in use: %7.2f MB)\n", __func__, system_gpu_status->total_free_vram/MB*1.0, system_gpu_status->total_vram/MB*1.0, (system_gpu_status->total_vram-system_gpu_status->total_free_vram)/MB*1.0);

        if (model.type == FALCON_40B)
        {
            // if lm_head is not offloaded we'd save vram_overhead += (1016+144)*MB; 
            if (model.hparams.ftype != LLAMA_FTYPE_ALL_F32)
            { 
                if (n_batch > 1)
                {
                    vram_overhead += (1016+512+144+50)*MB; 
                    fprintf(stderr, "%s: INFO: using n_batch larger than 1 requires additional VRAM per device: %7.2f MB\n", __func__, vram_overhead/MB*1.0);
                } else
                {
                    if (hparams.n_vocab%2)
                    {
                        vram_overhead += (1016+512+144+50)*MB;
                        fprintf(stderr, "%s: INFO: unoptimized fine-tune weights requires additional VRAM per device: %7.2f MB\n", __func__, vram_overhead/MB*1.0);
                    }
                }
            }
            
        } 
        if (model.type == FALCON_7B)
        {
            // if lm_head is not offloaded we'd save vram_overhead += (563+41)*MB; 
            if (model.hparams.ftype != LLAMA_FTYPE_ALL_F32)
            { 
                if (n_batch > 1)
                {
                    vram_overhead += (157+563+41)*MB; 
                    fprintf(stderr, "%s: INFO: using n_batch larger than 1 will require additional VRAM per device: %7.2f MB\n", __func__, vram_overhead/MB*1.0);
                } else
                {
                    if (hparams.n_vocab%2)
                    {
                            vram_overhead += (157+563+41)*MB; 
                            fprintf(stderr, "%s: INFO: unoptimized fine-tune weights requires additional VRAM per device: %7.2f MB\n", __func__, vram_overhead/MB*1.0);
                    }
                }
            }
            
        }
    } else
    {
        printf("%s: WARNING: no CUDA devices found, falling back to CPU\n", __func__);
    }
    
    

#endif

    // prepare memory for the weights
    size_t vram_weights = 0;
    size_t vram_scratch = 0;
    size_t vram_output = 0; // for display only

        (void) vram_scratch;
        (void) n_batch;
    // calculate scratch buffer size and allocate it
#ifdef GGML_USE_CUBLAS
        // vram_scratch = n_batch * MB;
        vram_scratch = 0; // these are not used until we have multi operation support
        ggml_cuda_set_scratch_size(vram_scratch);
        if (n_gpu_layers > 0) {

            fprintf(stderr, "%s: allocating batch_size x 1 MB = %zd MB VRAM for the scratch buffer\n",
                    __func__, vram_scratch / MB);
        }
#endif // GGML_USE_CUBLAS

    {
        const uint32_t n_embd = hparams.n_embd;
        const uint32_t n_head = hparams.n_head;
        const uint32_t n_head_kv = hparams.n_head_kv;
        const uint32_t n_layer = hparams.n_layer;
        const uint32_t n_ff = 4 * model.hparams.n_embd;
        const uint32_t n_vocab = hparams.n_vocab;
        const uint32_t head_dim = hparams.n_embd / hparams.n_head;

        ml->ggml_ctx = ctx;

        model.tok_embeddings = ml->get_tensor("transformer.word_embeddings.weight", {n_embd, n_vocab}, GGML_BACKEND_CPU);
       
        ggml_backend backend_norm;
        ggml_backend backend_output;
        // output layer offloading is on by default now, it's one of the biggest CPU consumers
        bool offload_output = true;
        if (n_gpu_layers == 0) offload_output = false;
        #ifdef GGML_USE_CUBLAS
        if (system_gpu_status->num_devices == 0) offload_output = false;
        #endif

        if (offload_output) { // NOLINT
            // backend_norm = LLAMA_BACKEND_OFFLOAD; // this requires REPEAT on GPU (in f7b)
            backend_norm = GGML_BACKEND_CPU; 
            backend_output = LLAMA_BACKEND_OFFLOAD_SPLIT;
            if (model.type == FALCON_7B && n_batch > 1)
            {
                backend_output = LLAMA_BACKEND_OFFLOAD; // only one n_head_kv 
            }
        } else {
            backend_norm = GGML_BACKEND_CPU;
            backend_output = GGML_BACKEND_CPU;
        }
        //backend_output=GGML_BACKEND_CPU;// 1GB vram for 16 bin cublas (with and without n_batch)

        vram_output=0;
        // "output" tensor
        {
            
            model.output_norm = ml->get_tensor("transformer.ln_f.weight", {n_embd}, backend_norm);
            model.output_norm_b = ml->get_tensor("transformer.ln_f.bias", {n_embd}, backend_norm);
            // lm_head does not always run in quantized kernels - cuda currently converts it to 16 bit which will cause 1GB vram overhead on 40B
            model.lm_head = ml->get_tensor("lm_head.weight", {n_embd, n_vocab}, backend_output);
        }

        if (backend_norm != GGML_BACKEND_CPU)
        {
            vram_weights += ggml_nbytes(model.output_norm) + ggml_nbytes(model.output_norm_b);
            vram_output += ggml_nbytes(model.output_norm) +  ggml_nbytes(model.output_norm_b);
            vram_free -= ggml_nbytes(model.output_norm) +  ggml_nbytes(model.output_norm_b);
        }
        if (backend_output != GGML_BACKEND_CPU)
        {
            vram_weights += ggml_nbytes(model.lm_head);
            vram_output += ggml_nbytes(model.lm_head);
            vram_free -= ggml_nbytes(model.lm_head);
            fprintf(stderr, "%s: Offloading Output head tensor (%zd MB)\n", __func__, ggml_nbytes(model.lm_head)/MB);
        }

        int i_gpu_start = n_layer - n_gpu_layers;
        if (i_gpu_start < 0)
            i_gpu_start = 0; // n_gpu_layers can be larger than n_layer


        int i_gpu_last = n_layer; // allows to terminate the offloading earlier. TODO: instead do a proper calculation run and determine the start before the loop

        #ifdef GGML_USE_CUBLAS
        if (system_gpu_status->num_devices == 0)
        {
            i_gpu_start = 999;
            i_gpu_last = -1;
            n_gpu_layers = 0;
            model.n_gpu_layers = 0;
        }
        #endif

        model.i_gpu_start = i_gpu_start;
        model.i_gpu_last = i_gpu_last; // if VRAM doesn't run out i_gpu_last is always the last layer


        model.layers.resize(n_layer);
        for (uint32_t i = 0; i < n_layer; ++i) {
            ggml_set_current_layer_id(i);
            const ggml_backend backend = (int(i) < i_gpu_start || int(i) > i_gpu_last) ? GGML_BACKEND_CPU : LLAMA_BACKEND_OFFLOAD; // NOLINT
            const ggml_backend backend_split = (int(i) < i_gpu_start || int(i) > i_gpu_last) ? GGML_BACKEND_CPU : LLAMA_BACKEND_OFFLOAD_SPLIT; // NOLINT

            auto & layer = model.layers[i];

            std::string layers_i = "layers." + std::to_string(i);
            std::string str_i = std::to_string(i);

            if (model.type == FALCON_40B)
            {
                layer.input_layernorm = ml->get_tensor("transformer.h." + str_i +".ln_mlp.weight", {n_embd}, GGML_BACKEND_CPU);
                layer.input_layernorm_b = ml->get_tensor("transformer.h." + str_i +".ln_mlp.bias", {n_embd}, GGML_BACKEND_CPU);
                layer.attention_norm = ml->get_tensor("transformer.h." + str_i +".ln_attn.weight", {n_embd}, GGML_BACKEND_CPU);
                layer.attention_norm_b = ml->get_tensor("transformer.h." + str_i +".ln_attn.bias", {n_embd}, GGML_BACKEND_CPU);
            } else // FALCON_7B
            {
                layer.input_layernorm = ml->get_tensor("transformer.h." + str_i +".input_layernorm.weight", {n_embd}, backend);
                layer.input_layernorm_b = ml->get_tensor("transformer.h." + str_i +".input_layernorm.bias", {n_embd}, GGML_BACKEND_CPU);
            }

            layer.query_key_value = ml->get_tensor("transformer.h." + str_i +".self_attention.query_key_value.weight", {n_embd, (n_head_kv * 2 + n_head) * head_dim}, backend_split);
            layer.wo = ml->get_tensor("transformer.h." + str_i +".self_attention.dense.weight", {n_embd, n_embd}, backend_split);

            layer.ffn_up = ml->get_tensor("transformer.h."+str_i + ".mlp.dense_h_to_4h.weight", {n_embd, n_ff}, backend_split); // before gelu
            layer.ffn_down = ml->get_tensor("transformer.h."+str_i + ".mlp.dense_4h_to_h.weight", {n_ff, n_embd}, backend_split); // after gelu
            #ifdef GGML_USE_CUBLAS
            if (backend != GGML_BACKEND_CPU)
            {
                size_t vram_layer = 0;
                vram_layer = calculate_layer_vram_bytes(layer)*1.035; // 3.5%-4.0% too small for some reason
                vram_weights += vram_layer;
                vram_free = (vram_layer > vram_free) ? 0 : vram_free - vram_layer; // simulate the layer being loaded in VRAM
                // test if we have enough VRAM to offload the next layer
                
                if (i < n_layer && (int64_t)vram_free <= (int64_t)(vram_overhead+vram_scratch+vram_reserved+vram_layer))
                {
                    int64_t missing_vram_mb =
                        (vram_layer * n_layer + vram_scratch + vram_reserved + vram_overhead + vram_output) > system_gpu_status->total_free_vram ?
                        ((vram_layer * n_layer + vram_scratch + vram_reserved + vram_overhead + vram_output) - system_gpu_status->total_free_vram) / MB + 1 :
                        0;
                    fprintf(stderr, "%s: INFO: not enough VRAM to offload layer %d (missing %zd MB)\n", __func__, i+1, missing_vram_mb);

                    model.n_gpu_layers = n_gpu_layers;
                    i_gpu_last = i;
                    model.i_gpu_last = i_gpu_last;
                    n_gpu_layers = i_gpu_last - i_gpu_start;
                    fprintf(stderr,"%s: INFO: %d layers will be offloaded to GPU (layers %d to %d)\n", __func__, n_gpu_layers, i_gpu_start+1, i_gpu_last+1);
                }
            }
            #endif


         
        }
    }

    ml->verify_correct_load();

    // print memory requirements
    {
        int64_t mem_required =
            ctx_size + 
            mmapped_size - vram_weights + // weights in VRAM not in memory
            MEM_REQ_SCRATCH0().at(model.type) +
            MEM_REQ_SCRATCH1().at(model.type) +
            MEM_REQ_EVAL_BATCH(model.type,n_batch,n_ctx).first + // only prompt context relevant but 
            MEM_REQ_EVAL_BATCH(model.type,n_batch,n_ctx).second +// only prompt context actually scales
            MEM_REQ_EVAL().at    (model.type);
        
        if (mem_required < 0) mem_required = 0;

        // this is the memory required by one llama_state
        const size_t mem_required_state =
            MEM_REQ_KV_SELF(model.hparams, memory_type, n_ctx);

        fprintf(stderr, "%s: mem required  = %7.2f MB (+ %7.2f MB per state)\n", __func__,
                mem_required / 1024.0 / 1024.0, mem_required_state / 1024.0 / 1024.0);

        // moved scratch allocation of vram to top
#if defined(GGML_USE_CUBLAS) || defined(GGML_USE_CLBLAST)
        const int n_gpu = std::min(n_gpu_layers, int(hparams.n_layer));

        fprintf(stderr, "%s: offloading %d of %d layers to GPU, weights offloaded %7.2f MB\n",
                __func__, n_gpu, hparams.n_layer, vram_weights / 1024.0 / 1024.0);
        fprintf(stderr, "%s: estimated VRAM usage: %zu MB\n",
                __func__, (vram_weights + vram_scratch + vram_overhead + MB - 1) / MB); // round up
#else
        (void) n_gpu_layers;
#endif
    }

    // populate `tensors_by_name`
    for (falcon_load_tensor & lt : ml->tensors_map.tensors) {
        model.tensors_by_name.emplace_back(lt.name, lt.ggml_tensor);
    }
    
    
    if (progress_callback) {
        progress_callback(0.01f, progress_callback_user_data,"Loading weights");
    }
    
    ml->load_all_data(progress_callback, progress_callback_user_data, use_mlock ? &model.mlock_mmap : NULL);

    if (progress_callback) {
        progress_callback(0.98f, progress_callback_user_data,"Tensors populated");
    }

    #if defined(GGML_USE_CUBLAS)
    ggml_cuda_update_gpu_status(-1);
    progress_callback(0.99f, progress_callback_user_data,"Waiting for CUDA");
    while (!ggml_init_cublas(true)) std::this_thread::sleep_for(std::chrono::milliseconds(50));
    progress_callback(1.0f, progress_callback_user_data,"Tensors populated, CUDA ready");
    #else
    progress_callback(1.0f, progress_callback_user_data,"Tensors populated");
    #endif

    model.mapping = std::move(ml->mapping);

    // loading time will be recalculate after the first eval, so
    // we take page faults deferred by mmap() into consideration
    
    return model_;
}

static falcon_model * falcon_model_load(
        const std::string & fname,
        int n_ctx,
        int n_batch,
        int n_gpu_layers,
        int main_gpu,
        ggml_type memory_type,
        bool use_mmap,
        bool use_mlock,
        bool vocab_only,
        falcon_progress_callback progress_callback,
        void *progress_callback_user_data) {
    try {
        falcon_model *model = falcon_model_load_internal(fname, n_ctx, n_batch, n_gpu_layers, main_gpu, memory_type,
                                  use_mmap, use_mlock, vocab_only, progress_callback, progress_callback_user_data);
        return model;
    } catch (const std::exception & err) {
        fprintf(stderr, "error loading model: %s\n", err.what());
        return nullptr;
    }
}

// steepness around 100 is a nice curve, 10 is sharp, 1000 is very smooth
float log_scale(float n,float decay_start = 100,float decay_end = 5000,float scale_start = 1.0f,float scale_end = 0.25f,float curve_steep = 10)
{
    float scale=1.0f;
    // Pre-calculate the normalization factor
    float norm_factor = log10(1.0 + (decay_end - decay_start)/curve_steep);

    
    if (n <= decay_start) {
        scale = scale_start;
    }
    else if (n <= decay_end) {
        scale = scale_start - ((log10(1.0 + (n - decay_start)/curve_steep) / norm_factor) * (scale_start - scale_end));
    }
    else {
        scale = scale_end;
    }
    return scale;
}

// evaluate the transformer
//
//   - lctx:         llama context
//   - tokens:       new batch of tokens to process
//   - n_past:       the context size so far
//   - n_threads:    number of threads to use
//   - cgraph_fname: filename of the exported computation graph
//
static bool falcon_eval_internal(
        falcon_context &  lctx,
    const falcon_token *  tokens,
            falcon_evaluation_config &configuration) {

    const int64_t t_start_us = ggml_time_us();
    bool use_broadcasting = true;//(n_tokens == 1); // switched from interleaving repeat to broadcasting
    
    const int N = configuration.n_tokens;
    //const int N = embd_inp.size();

    const auto & model   = lctx.model;
    const auto & hparams = model.hparams;

    const auto & kv_self = model.kv_self;

    FALCON_ASSERT(!!kv_self.ctx);

    const int n_embd       = hparams.n_embd;
    const int n_layer      = hparams.n_layer;
    const int n_ctx        = hparams.n_ctx;
    const int n_head       = hparams.n_head;
    const int n_head_kv = hparams.n_head_kv;
    const int n_vocab      = hparams.n_vocab;
    const int n_falcon_type = hparams.n_falcon_type;
    const int n_gpu_layers = model.n_gpu_layers;
    const size_t head_dim = n_embd / n_head; // == n_rot in llama

    int n_past = configuration.n_past;

    auto & mem_per_token = lctx.mem_per_token;
    auto & buf_compute   = lctx.buf_compute;
    if (configuration.n_tokens > 1 && n_gpu_layers > 0)     {
        // for batched prompt processing if using cublas on QKV multiplications is wanted
        // this causes a expensive interleaving repeat and cpy on CPU but enabled highspeed processing
        // ín all tested cases CPU processing was faster (through interleaved broadcasting)
        // use_broadcasting=false;
    }

    struct ggml_init_params params = {
        /*.mem_size   =*/ buf_compute.size,
        /*.mem_buffer =*/ buf_compute.addr,
        /*.no_alloc   =*/ false,
    };

    struct ggml_context * ctx0 = ggml_init(params);

    // for big prompts, if BLAS is enabled, it is better to use only one thread
    // otherwise, the threads are spin-lock waiting for the BLAS calls and are degrading the performance
    ggml_cgraph gf = {};
    gf.n_threads = N >= 32 && ggml_cpu_has_blas() && !ggml_cpu_has_gpublas() ? 1 : configuration.n_threads;

            
#if 0
            lctx.use_buf(ctx0, 0);
            
            // test mode:
            //1. create a 16k tensor filled with 0.5 values as Qcur
            //2. run rope_inplace and then dump the resulting tensor for a plot
            // test dimensions: n_embeddings (col), n_heads (rows=1), n_past (previous tokens calculated)
            // can't we just calculate only the current one and copy the previous from cache ??            
            // create a vector of 10k tensors, then run the same rope for npast 0-9999
            // we want to see how clean the rotation is
            struct ggml_tensor *test_tensor[100];


            for (int multi=0;multi < 10;multi++)
            {
                struct ggml_context * ctx0 = ggml_init(params);
                #define GGML_MAX_NODES 1000000
                ggml_cgraph ggf = {};
                ggf.n_threads = 1;
                lctx.use_buf(ctx0, 0);
                for (int i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
                    int n_past = (multi*100 + i)*10;
                    test_tensor[i] = ggml_new_tensor_3d(ctx0, GGML_TYPE_F32, 32, 1, 1);
                    ggml_set_current_layer_id(i);
                    
                    ggml_set_f32(test_tensor[i], 0.5);
                    test_tensor[i] = ggml_rope_inplace(ctx0, test_tensor[i], n_past, 32, 2,10000);
                    //   test_tensor[i]->meta.i_custom[GGML_CUSTOM_I_ROPE_ANG_FREQ] = 40000;
                      test_tensor[i]->meta.f_custom[GGML_CUSTOM_F_ROPE_NTK_ALPHA] = 4;
                    //  test_tensor[i]->meta.f_custom[GGML_CUSTOM_F_ROPE_ANG_SCALE] = 0.25;

                    ggml_build_forward_expand(&ggf, test_tensor[i]);
                }
                ggml_graph_compute(ctx0, &ggf);
                for (int i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
                    int n_past = (multi*100 + i)*10;
                    float rot_x,rot_y;
                    rot_x = ggml_get_tensor_index(test_tensor[i],0,0,0,0);
                    rot_y = ggml_get_tensor_index(test_tensor[i],32,0,0,0);
                    printf("%d,%f,%f\n", n_past, rot_x, rot_y);
                    // printf("rotation at %d is %f,%f\n", n_past, rot_x,rot_y);
                    
                }    
                // destruct the gf
                ggml_free(ctx0);
            }
            
            //ggml_tensor_printf(test_tensor[90],"test",0,true,true);
            exit(0 );
#endif

    struct ggml_tensor * embd = ggml_new_tensor_1d(ctx0, GGML_TYPE_I32, N);
    ggml_set_name(embd, "embd");
    memcpy(embd->data, tokens, N*ggml_element_size(embd));

    struct ggml_tensor * cur;
    struct ggml_tensor * inpL = ggml_get_rows(ctx0, model.tok_embeddings, embd);
    
    struct ggml_tensor * layernorm_output;

     ggml_type wtype = GGML_TYPE_F32;
    // ggml_type wtype = ggml_ftype_to_ggml_type((ggml_ftype) (model.hparams.ftype));
     const int sizeof_wtype = ggml_type_sizef(wtype);

    // const int i_gpu_start = n_layer - n_gpu_layers;
    const int i_gpu_start = lctx.model.i_gpu_start;
    const int i_gpu_last = lctx.model.i_gpu_last > 0 ? lctx.model.i_gpu_last : n_layer;
    (void) i_gpu_start;

    // offload functions set the tensor output backend to GPU
    // tensors are GPU-accelerated if any input or the output has been offloaded
    //
    // with the low VRAM option VRAM scratch is disabled in llama_load_model_internal
    // in that case ggml_cuda_assign_buffers has no effect
    offload_func_t offload_func_nr = llama_nop; // nr = non-repeating
    offload_func_t offload_func_kqv = llama_nop;

#ifdef GGML_USE_CUBLAS
        // todo: instead of n_layer use either a flag in model/params or a backend test to determine if norm/output are on GPU
        if (n_gpu_layers > n_layer) {
            offload_func_nr = ggml_cuda_assign_buffers;
        }
        if (n_gpu_layers > n_layer + 1) {
            offload_func_kqv  = ggml_cuda_assign_buffers;
        }
#endif // GGML_USE_CUBLAS

    for (int il = 0; il < n_layer; ++il) {
        ggml_set_current_layer_id(il);
        offload_func_t offload_func = llama_nop;

#ifdef GGML_USE_CUBLAS
        if (il >= i_gpu_start && il <= i_gpu_last) {
            offload_func = ggml_cuda_assign_buffers; // sets the output backend to GPU
        }
#endif // GGML_USE_CUBLAS

        // struct ggml_tensor * inpSA = inpL;

        lctx.use_buf(ctx0, 0);
        // self-attention
        {
            layernorm_output = ggml_norm(ctx0, inpL);

            ggml_tensor * il_a = ggml_mul(ctx0, layernorm_output, model.layers[il].input_layernorm);
            offload_func(il_a); // (todo: uses vram scratch)

            layernorm_output = ggml_add(ctx0,
                                        il_a,
                                        ggml_repeat(ctx0, model.layers[il].input_layernorm_b, layernorm_output));
            offload_func(layernorm_output);
            ggml_set_name(layernorm_output, "layernorm_output");

            if (model.type == FALCON_40B || n_falcon_type == 40)
            {
                 cur = ggml_norm(ctx0, inpL);

                cur = ggml_add(ctx0,
                        ggml_mul(ctx0,
                            ggml_repeat(ctx0, model.layers[il].attention_norm, cur),
                            cur),
                        ggml_repeat(ctx0, model.layers[il].attention_norm_b, cur));
            } else {
                cur = layernorm_output;
            }

            // compute QKV

            cur = ggml_mul_mat(ctx0, model.layers[il].query_key_value, cur);
            // offload_func(cur);

            // Note that the strides for Kcur, Vcur are set up so that the
            // resulting views are misaligned with the tensor's storage
            // (by applying the K/V offset we shift the tensor's original
            // view to stick out behind the viewed QKV tensor's allocated
            // memory, so to say). This is ok because no actual accesses
            // happen to that out-of-range memory, but it can require some
            // trickery when trying to accurately dump these views for
            // debugging.

            struct ggml_tensor * Qcur = ggml_view_3d(
                ctx0, cur, 
                head_dim, n_head, N,
                head_dim * sizeof_wtype,
                head_dim * (n_head + 2 * n_head_kv) * sizeof_wtype,
                0);
            ggml_set_name(Qcur, "Qcur");

            struct ggml_tensor * Kcur = ggml_view_3d(
                ctx0, cur, 
                head_dim, n_head_kv, N,
                head_dim * sizeof_wtype,
                head_dim * (n_head + 2 * n_head_kv) * sizeof_wtype,
                head_dim * n_head * sizeof_wtype);
            ggml_set_name(Kcur, "Kcur");

            struct ggml_tensor * Vcur = ggml_view_3d(
                ctx0, cur, 
                head_dim, n_head_kv, N,
                head_dim * sizeof_wtype,
                head_dim * (n_head + 2 * n_head_kv) * sizeof_wtype,
                head_dim * (n_head + n_head_kv) * sizeof_wtype);
            ggml_set_name(Vcur, "Vcur");

            // using mode = 2 for neox mode
            Qcur = ggml_rope_inplace(ctx0, Qcur, n_past, head_dim, 2,configuration.n_max_real_ctx?configuration.n_max_real_ctx:n_ctx);
            Kcur = ggml_rope_inplace(ctx0, Kcur, n_past, head_dim, 2,configuration.n_max_real_ctx?configuration.n_max_real_ctx:n_ctx);
            Qcur->meta.i_custom[GGML_CUSTOM_I_ROPE_DYNAMIC_MODE] = 1;
            Kcur->meta.i_custom[GGML_CUSTOM_I_ROPE_DYNAMIC_MODE] = 1;
            Qcur->meta.f_custom[GGML_CUSTOM_F_ROPE_NTK_ALPHA] = 2;
            Kcur->meta.f_custom[GGML_CUSTOM_F_ROPE_NTK_ALPHA] = 2;

            // store key and value to memory

            struct ggml_tensor* k = ggml_view_1d(
                ctx0, kv_self.k, 
                N * n_head_kv * head_dim,
                (ggml_element_size(kv_self.k) * n_head_kv * head_dim) *
                    (il * n_ctx + n_past));  
            ggml_set_name(k, "k");
            ggml_build_forward_expand(&gf, ggml_cpy(ctx0, Kcur, k));
        #ifdef FALCON_NO_KV_UPGRADE
            struct ggml_tensor* v = ggml_view_1d(
                ctx0, kv_self.v, 
                N * n_head_kv * head_dim,
                (ggml_element_size(kv_self.v) * n_head_kv * head_dim) *
                    (il * n_ctx + n_past));
            ggml_set_name(v, "v");
            ggml_build_forward_expand(&gf, ggml_cpy(ctx0, Vcur, v));
        #endif
                
        #ifndef FALCON_NO_KV_UPGRADE
            struct ggml_tensor* V_prev = ggml_view_3d(
                ctx0,
                (kv_self.v_current == kv_self.V_A)?kv_self.v_a:kv_self.v_b,
                n_past, head_dim, n_head_kv,
                /*nb1*/(n_past) * ggml_element_size(kv_self.v),
                /*nb2*/head_dim * ggml_element_size(kv_self.v) * (n_past),
                /*off*/il * n_ctx * ggml_element_size(kv_self.v) * n_head_kv * head_dim);
            ggml_set_name(V_prev, "V_prev");
            struct ggml_tensor* V_new = ggml_view_3d(
                ctx0,
                (kv_self.v_current == kv_self.V_A)?kv_self.v_b:kv_self.v_a,
                n_past + N, head_dim, n_head_kv,
                /*nb1*/(N+n_past) * ggml_element_size(kv_self.v),
                /*nb2*/head_dim * ggml_element_size(kv_self.v) * (N+n_past),
                /*off*/il * n_ctx * ggml_element_size(kv_self.v) * n_head_kv * head_dim);
            ggml_set_name(V_new, "V_new");
            if (n_past == 0) 
            {
                ggml_build_forward_expand(&gf, ggml_cpy(ctx0, ggml_permute(ctx0,Vcur,1,2,0,3), V_new));
            } else
            {
                V_new = ggml_set_inplace(ctx0,V_new,V_prev,V_new->nb[1],V_new->nb[2],V_new->nb[3],0);
                V_new = ggml_set_inplace(ctx0,V_new,ggml_cont(ctx0,ggml_permute(ctx0,Vcur,1,2,0,3)),V_new->nb[1],V_new->nb[2],V_new->nb[3],n_past*ggml_element_size(kv_self.v));
                ggml_build_forward_expand(&gf, V_new);
                }
        #endif
                                  
            

            struct ggml_tensor * K = ggml_permute(
                ctx0,
                ggml_view_3d(
                    ctx0,
                    kv_self.k,
                    head_dim, n_head_kv, n_past + N,
                    head_dim * sizeof_wtype,
                    head_dim * n_head_kv * sizeof_wtype,
                    il * n_ctx * ggml_element_size(kv_self.k) * n_head_kv * head_dim),
                0, 2, 1, 3);

            // K * Q
            if(!use_broadcasting)
            {
                // interleaved repeat for multiplication (now broadcasted)
                struct ggml_tensor* repeat_dummy = ggml_new_tensor_3d(ctx0, inpL->type, head_dim, N + n_past, n_head);
                K = ggml_repeat2(ctx0, ggml_cont(ctx0, K),repeat_dummy); 
            }
            
            
            ggml_set_name(K, "K");
            struct ggml_tensor * Q = ggml_permute(ctx0, Qcur, 0, 2, 1, 3);
            ggml_set_name(Q, "Q");
            struct ggml_tensor * KQ = ggml_mul_mat(ctx0, K, Q);
            if (use_broadcasting) KQ->meta.cuda_op_directive=0;
            ggml_set_name(KQ, "KQ");

            // KQ_scaled = KQ / sqrt(n_embd/n_head)
            struct ggml_tensor * KQ_scaled =
                ggml_scale_inplace(ctx0,
                        KQ,
                        ggml_new_f32(ctx0, 1.0f/sqrt(float(head_dim)))
                        );
            ggml_set_name(KQ_scaled, "KQ_scaled");

            // KQ_masked = mask_past(KQ_scaled)
            struct ggml_tensor * KQ_masked = ggml_diag_mask_inf_inplace(ctx0, KQ_scaled, n_past);
            ggml_set_name(KQ_masked, "KQ_masked");

            // KQ = soft_max(KQ_masked)
            struct ggml_tensor * KQ_soft_max = ggml_soft_max_inplace(ctx0, KQ_masked);
            ggml_set_name(KQ_soft_max, "KQ_soft_max");

            // V_trans = Vmem.view(n_embd/n_head, n_head, n_past + N).permute(1, 2, 0, 3).contiguous()
            #ifdef FALCON_NO_KV_UPGRADE
            struct ggml_tensor* V = ggml_permute(
                ctx0,
                ggml_view_3d(
                    ctx0,
                    kv_self.v,
                    head_dim, n_head_kv, n_past + N,
                    head_dim * sizeof_wtype,
                    head_dim * n_head_kv * sizeof_wtype,
                    il * n_ctx * ggml_element_size(kv_self.v) * n_head_kv * head_dim),
                1, 2, 0, 3);
                V = ggml_cont(ctx0, V);
            #else
            struct ggml_tensor *V = V_new;
            #endif
            {
                if (!use_broadcasting)
                {
                    // interleaved repeat for multiplication (now broadcasted)
                    struct ggml_tensor* repeat_dummy_permuted =  ggml_new_tensor_3d(ctx0, inpL->type, N + n_past, head_dim, n_head);
                    V = ggml_repeat2(ctx0, V, repeat_dummy_permuted);   
                }
                ggml_set_name(V, "V");  
            }

            // KQV = transpose(V) * KQ_soft_max
            struct ggml_tensor * KQV = ggml_mul_mat(ctx0, V, KQ_soft_max);
            if (use_broadcasting) KQV->meta.cuda_op_directive=0;
            ggml_set_name(KQV, "KQV");

            // KQV_merged = KQV.permute(0, 2, 1, 3)
            struct ggml_tensor * KQV_merged = ggml_permute(ctx0, KQV, 0, 2, 1, 3);
            ggml_set_name(KQV_merged, "KQV_merged");

            // cur = KQV_merged.contiguous().view(n_embd, N)
            cur = ggml_cpy(ctx0,
                    KQV_merged,
                    ggml_new_tensor_2d(ctx0, GGML_TYPE_F32, n_embd, N));

            // projection
            {
                cur = ggml_mul_mat(ctx0,
                        model.layers[il].wo,
                        cur);
                // offload_func(cur);
                ggml_set_name(cur, "result_wo");
            } 
        } // end of attention

        lctx.use_buf(ctx0, 1);
        //ggml_cuda_set_scratch(1);


        struct ggml_tensor* inpFF = layernorm_output;
        ggml_set_name(inpFF, "inpFF");
        struct ggml_tensor* attn_out = ggml_cpy(
            ctx0, cur, ggml_new_tensor_2d(ctx0, GGML_TYPE_F32, n_embd, N));
        //offload_func(attn_out);
        ggml_set_name(attn_out, "attn_out");
        {
            cur = ggml_mul_mat(ctx0, model.layers[il].ffn_up, inpFF);
            //offload_func(cur);
            ggml_set_name(cur, "inpFF*ff_up"); 
            cur = ggml_gelu_inplace(ctx0, cur);
            //offload_func(cur);
            cur = ggml_mul_mat(ctx0, model.layers[il].ffn_down, cur);
            //offload_func(cur);
            ggml_set_name(cur, "gelu_cur*ff_down");
        }

        cur = ggml_add(ctx0, cur, attn_out);
        cur = ggml_add(ctx0, cur, inpL);
        ggml_set_name(cur, "inpFF_+_result_attn_out");
        // input for next layer
        inpL = cur;
    } // end of layer loop
    ggml_set_current_layer_id(-1);
    lctx.use_buf(ctx0, 0);
    //ggml_cuda_set_scratch(0);

    // used at the end to optionally extract the embeddings
    struct ggml_tensor * embeddings = NULL;

    offload_func_t offload_func = llama_nop;

#ifdef GGML_USE_CUBLAS
        if (n_gpu_layers > 0 && n_layer >= i_gpu_start && n_layer <= i_gpu_last) {
            offload_func = ggml_cuda_assign_buffers; // sets the output backend to GPU
        }
#endif // GGML_USE_CUBLAS

    // norm
    {
        cur = ggml_norm(ctx0, inpL);
        // offload_func(cur);
        ggml_set_name(cur, "norm_cur");

        // inpL = ln_f_g*inpL + ln_f_b
        cur = ggml_add(ctx0,
                ggml_mul(ctx0,
                    ggml_repeat(ctx0, model.output_norm, cur),
                    cur),
                ggml_repeat(ctx0, model.output_norm_b, cur));
        // offload_func(cur); 
        ggml_set_name(cur, "result_norm");

        embeddings = cur;
    }


    // language modelling head
    cur = ggml_mul_mat(ctx0, model.lm_head, cur); 
    
    //offload_func(cur);
    ggml_set_name(cur, "result_lm_head");

    //  cur = ggml_mul_mat(ctx0, model.output, cur);
    // ggml_set_name(cur, "result_output");

    lctx.use_buf(ctx0, -1);
#if 0
{
    double used_mem = ggml_used_mem(ctx0) / 1024.0 / 1024.0;
    double scratch_mem_0 = lctx.get_buf_max_mem(0) / 1024.0 / 1024.0;
    double scratch_mem_1 = lctx.get_buf_max_mem(1) / 1024.0 / 1024.0;

    printf("\n%s: Memory Usage\n", __func__);
    printf("tokens: %d - n_batch: %d - n_context: %d\n", n_past+n_tokens, N, n_ctx);
    printf("  Used Memory:    %.3f MB\n", used_mem);
    printf("  Scratch Memory 0: %.3f MB\n", scratch_mem_0);
    printf("  Scratch Memory 1: %.3f MB\n", scratch_mem_1);
}
#endif
    // logits -> probs
    //cur = ggml_soft_max_inplace(ctx0, cur);

    // run the computation
    ggml_build_forward_expand(&gf, cur);
    
    ggml_backend lm_head_backend = model.lm_head->backend;
    // uneven lm_head from manually added tokens causes cublas errors with 7B
    if (model.type == FALCON_7B && (configuration.n_tokens > 1) && model.lm_head->ne[1]%2 != 0)
        model.lm_head->backend = GGML_BACKEND_CPU;  // cublas fails
        
#ifdef GGML_USE_METAL
    if (lctx.ctx_metal && N == 1) {
        ggml_metal_graph_compute(lctx.ctx_metal, &gf);
        ggml_metal_get_tensor   (lctx.ctx_metal, cur);
    } else {
        // IMPORTANT:
        // Since we don't have efficient Matrix x Matrix Metal multiplication yet, we fallback to vanilla
        // ggml_graph_compute(). It uses Apple's Accelerate CBLAS API which takes advantage of the ANE or the AMX
        // coprocessor.
        //
        // When we implement Matrix x Matrix Metal multiplication, we can avoid this branch.
        // But for now, we have focused only on Matrix x Vector Metal multiplication.
        //
        // TODO: avoid these syncs via shared memory (ref #1696)
        //
        if (lctx.ctx_metal) {
            // We need to sync the GPU KV cache with the CPU KV cache
            ggml_metal_get_tensor(lctx.ctx_metal, kv_self.k);
            ggml_metal_get_tensor(lctx.ctx_metal, kv_self.v);
        }

        ggml_graph_compute(ctx0, &gf);
    }
#else
    ggml_graph_compute(ctx0, &gf);
#endif
    model.lm_head->backend = lm_head_backend;
    if (configuration.cgraph_fname) {
        ggml_graph_export(&gf, configuration.cgraph_fname);
    }


    // print timing information per ggml operation (for debugging purposes)
    if (configuration.debug_timings)
    {
        if (n_past > 0 || configuration.debug_timings != 2)
        {
            static bool first = true;
            if ((first && configuration.debug_timings <=2) || configuration.debug_timings > 2)
            {
                first = false;
                //ggml_graph_print_impl(&gf,true,false,GGML_OP_MUL_MAT); // GGML_OP_MUL_MAT / GGML_OP_NONE
                ggml_graph_print_impl(&gf,true,false,GGML_OP_NONE); // GGML_OP_MUL_MAT / GGML_OP_NONE
            }
        }
        // requires GGML_PERF to be defined for actual timing information
        
    }
    


    // plot the computation graph in dot format (for debugging purposes)
    //if (n_past%100 == 0) {
    //    ggml_graph_dump_dot(&gf, NULL, "llama.dot");
    //}

    //embd_w.resize(n_vocab*N);
    //memcpy(embd_w.data(), ggml_get_data(cur), sizeof(float)*n_vocab*N);

    // update kv token count
    lctx.model.kv_self.n = n_past + N;
    // cycle kv/v storage buffer
    lctx.model.kv_self.v_current = (kv_self.v_current == kv_self.V_A) ? kv_self.V_B : kv_self.V_A;

    // extract logits
    {
        auto & logits_out = lctx.logits;

        if (lctx.logits_all) {
            logits_out.resize(n_vocab * N);
            memcpy(logits_out.data(), (float *) ggml_get_data(cur), sizeof(float)*n_vocab*N);
        } else {
            // return result for just the last token
            logits_out.resize(n_vocab);
            memcpy(logits_out.data(), (float *) ggml_get_data(cur) + (n_vocab*(N-1)), sizeof(float)*n_vocab);
        }
    }

    // extract embeddings
    if (!lctx.embedding.empty()) {
        auto & embedding_out = lctx.embedding;

        embedding_out.resize(n_embd);
        memcpy(embedding_out.data(), (float *) ggml_get_data(embeddings) + (n_embd*(N - 1)), sizeof(float)*n_embd);
    }

    if (mem_per_token == 0) {
        mem_per_token = ggml_used_mem(ctx0)/N;
    }

#if 0
    double used_mem = ggml_used_mem(ctx0) / 1024.0 / 1024.0;
    double scratch_mem_0 = lctx.get_buf_max_mem(0) / 1024.0 / 1024.0;
    double scratch_mem_1 = lctx.get_buf_max_mem(1) / 1024.0 / 1024.0;

    printf("\n%s: Memory Usage\n", __func__);
    printf("n_past: %d - n_batch: %d - n_context: %d\n", n_past+n_tokens, N, n_ctx);
    printf("  Used Memory:    %.3f MB\n", used_mem);
    printf("  Scratch Memory 0: %.3f MB\n", scratch_mem_0);
    printf("  Scratch Memory 1: %.3f MB\n", scratch_mem_1);
#endif

    ggml_free(ctx0);

    // measure the performance only for the single-token evals
    if (N == 1) {
        lctx.t_eval_us += ggml_time_us() - t_start_us;
        lctx.n_eval++;
    }
    else if (N > 1) {
        lctx.t_p_eval_us += ggml_time_us() - t_start_us;
        lctx.n_p_eval += N;
    }

    return true;
}

//
// tokenizer - bpe type, gpt2 tokenization compatible
//

struct ggllm_bpe_symbol {
    using index = int;
    index prev;
    index next;
    const char * text;
    size_t n;
};

static_assert(std::is_trivially_copyable<ggllm_bpe_symbol>::value, "ggllm_bpe_symbol is not trivially copyable");

struct ggllm_bpe_bigram {
    struct comparator 
    {
        bool operator()(ggllm_bpe_bigram & l, ggllm_bpe_bigram & r) 
        {
            return l.rank > r.rank || (l.rank == r.rank && l.left > r.left);
        }
    };

    using queue_storage = std::vector<ggllm_bpe_bigram>;
    using queue = std::priority_queue<ggllm_bpe_bigram, queue_storage, comparator>;
    ggllm_bpe_symbol::index left;
    ggllm_bpe_symbol::index right;
    std::string text;
    int rank;
    size_t size;
};

struct falcon_tokenizer {
    falcon_tokenizer(const falcon_vocab & vocab, bool g2ws_): vocab_(vocab) { flag_g2ws = g2ws_; }

    void tokenize(const std::string & text, std::vector<falcon_vocab::id> & output) {
        int final_prev_index = -1;
        // auto start = ggml_time_us();
        auto word_collection = bpe_gpt2_preprocess(text); 
        // auto end = ggml_time_us();
        // fprintf(stderr, "%s: preprocessing took %0.3f ms\n", __func__, (end - start) / 1000.0);
        
        
        symbols_final.clear(); 

        for (auto & word : word_collection) 
        {
            work_queue_ = ggllm_bpe_bigram::queue();
            symbols_.clear();
            bool is_special = false;
            for (auto it = vocab_.special_tokens.begin(); it != vocab_.special_tokens.end(); ++it)
            {
                std::string special_token = it->first;
                if (word.compare(special_token) == 0)
                {
                    ggllm_bpe_symbol sym;
                    sym.text = word.c_str();
                    sym.n = word.size();
                    sym.prev = -1;
                    sym.next = -1;
                    symbols_.emplace_back(sym);
                    is_special = true;
                    break;
                }
            }

            int index = 0;
            size_t offset = 0;
            if (!is_special) 
            {
       
                while (offset < word.size()) 
                {
                    ggllm_bpe_symbol sym;
                    size_t char_len = std::min(word.size() - offset, (size_t) CNCTUnicode::utf8_len(word[offset]));
                    sym.text = word.c_str() + offset;
                    sym.n = 1;
                    sym.n = char_len;
                    offset += sym.n;
                    sym.prev = index - 1;
                    sym.next = offset == word.size() ? -1 : index + 1;
                    index++;
                    symbols_.emplace_back(sym);
                }
                for (size_t i = 1; i < symbols_.size(); ++i) {
                    add_new_bigram(i - 1, i);
                }
            }
            // build token(s)
            while (!work_queue_.empty()) 
            {
                auto bigram = work_queue_.top();
                work_queue_.pop();

                auto & left_symbol = symbols_[bigram.left];
                auto & right_symbol = symbols_[bigram.right];

                if (left_symbol.n == 0 || right_symbol.n == 0) {
                    continue;
                }
                std::string left_token = std::string(left_symbol.text, left_symbol.n);
                std::string right_token = std::string(right_symbol.text, right_symbol.n);
                if (left_token + right_token != bigram.text) {
                    continue;  // Skip this bigram if it's outdated
                }

                // merge the right sym into the left one
                left_symbol.n += right_symbol.n;
                right_symbol.n = 0;
                
                // remove the right sym from the chain
                left_symbol.next = right_symbol.next;
                if (right_symbol.next >= 0) {
                    symbols_[right_symbol.next].prev = bigram.left;
                }
                
                add_new_bigram(left_symbol.prev, bigram.left);  // left side of current symbol
                add_new_bigram(bigram.left, left_symbol.next);  // right side of current symbol
            }
            // add the fnished tokens to the final list keeping correct order for next and prev
            
            for (auto & sym : symbols_) 
            {
                if (sym.n > 0) 
                {
                    sym.prev = final_prev_index;
                    sym.next = -1;
                    if (final_prev_index != -1) 
                    {
                        symbols_final[final_prev_index].next = symbols_final.size();
                    }
                    symbols_final.emplace_back(sym);
                    final_prev_index = symbols_final.size() - 1;
                }
            }
        }


        symbols_ = symbols_final;
        if (symbols_.size())
        for (int i = 0; i != -1; i = symbols_[i].next) {
            auto & symbol = symbols_[i];
            if (symbol.n == 0) {
                continue;
            }
            std::string str = std::string(symbol.text, symbol.n);
            std::string str_decoded = decode_token(str);
            auto token = vocab_.token_to_id.find(str_decoded);

            if (token == vocab_.token_to_id.end()) {
                for (auto j = str_decoded.begin(); j != str_decoded.end(); ++j) {
                    std::string byte_str(1, *j);
                    auto token_multibyte = vocab_.token_to_id.find(byte_str);
                    if (token_multibyte == vocab_.token_to_id.end()) {
                        fprintf(stderr,"ERROR: byte not found in vocab: '%s'\n", byte_str.c_str());
                    }
                    output.push_back((*token_multibyte).second);
                }
            } else {
                output.push_back((*token).second);
            }
        }
    }

private:
    void add_new_bigram(int left, int right) 
    {
        if (left == -1 || right == -1)  return;
        
        std::string left_token = std::string(symbols_[left].text, symbols_[left].n);
        std::string right_token = std::string(symbols_[right].text, symbols_[right].n);

        int rank_found = -1;
        rank_found = vocab_.find_bpe_rank(left_token, right_token);

        if (rank_found < 0) {
            return;
        }

        ggllm_bpe_bigram bigram;
        bigram.left = left;
        bigram.right = right;
        bigram.rank = rank_found;
        bigram.size = left_token.size() + right_token.size();
        bigram.text = left_token + right_token;
        work_queue_.push(bigram);
    }

    std::unordered_map<unsigned char, std::string> bytes_to_unicode() {
        static std::unordered_map<unsigned char, std::string> hex_map = { { 0x21, "\x21" }, { 0x22, "\x22" }, { 0x23, "\x23" }, { 0x24, "\x24" }, { 0x25, "\x25" }, { 0x26, "\x26" }, { 0x27, "\x27" }, { 0x28, "\x28" }, { 0x29, "\x29" }, { 0x2A, "\x2A" }, { 0x2B, "\x2B" }, { 0x2C, "\x2C" }, { 0x2D, "\x2D" }, { 0x2E, "\x2E" }, { 0x2F, "\x2F" }, { 0x30, "\x30" }, { 0x31, "\x31" }, { 0x32, "\x32" }, { 0x33, "\x33" }, { 0x34, "\x34" }, { 0x35, "\x35" }, { 0x36, "\x36" }, { 0x37, "\x37" }, { 0x38, "\x38" }, { 0x39, "\x39" }, { 0x3A, "\x3A" }, { 0x3B, "\x3B" }, { 0x3C, "\x3C" }, { 0x3D, "\x3D" }, { 0x3E, "\x3E" }, { 0x3F, "\x3F" }, { 0x40, "\x40" }, { 0x41, "\x41" }, { 0x42, "\x42" }, { 0x43, "\x43" }, { 0x44, "\x44" }, { 0x45, "\x45" }, { 0x46, "\x46" }, { 0x47, "\x47" }, { 0x48, "\x48" }, { 0x49, "\x49" }, { 0x4A, "\x4A" }, { 0x4B, "\x4B" }, { 0x4C, "\x4C" }, { 0x4D, "\x4D" }, { 0x4E, "\x4E" }, { 0x4F, "\x4F" }, { 0x50, "\x50" }, { 0x51, "\x51" }, { 0x52, "\x52" }, { 0x53, "\x53" }, { 0x54, "\x54" }, { 0x55, "\x55" }, { 0x56, "\x56" }, { 0x57, "\x57" }, { 0x58, "\x58" }, { 0x59, "\x59" }, { 0x5A, "\x5A" }, { 0x5B, "\x5B" }, { 0x5C, "\x5C" }, { 0x5D, "\x5D" }, { 0x5E, "\x5E" }, { 0x5F, "\x5F" }, { 0x60, "\x60" }, { 0x61, "\x61" }, { 0x62, "\x62" }, { 0x63, "\x63" }, { 0x64, "\x64" }, { 0x65, "\x65" }, { 0x66, "\x66" }, { 0x67, "\x67" }, { 0x68, "\x68" }, { 0x69, "\x69" }, { 0x6A, "\x6A" }, { 0x6B, "\x6B" }, { 0x6C, "\x6C" }, { 0x6D, "\x6D" }, { 0x6E, "\x6E" }, { 0x6F, "\x6F" }, { 0x70, "\x70" }, { 0x71, "\x71" }, { 0x72, "\x72" }, { 0x73, "\x73" }, { 0x74, "\x74" }, { 0x75, "\x75" }, { 0x76, "\x76" }, { 0x77, "\x77" }, { 0x78, "\x78" }, { 0x79, "\x79" }, { 0x7A, "\x7A" }, { 0x7B, "\x7B" }, { 0x7C, "\x7C" }, { 0x7D, "\x7D" }, { 0x7E, "\x7E" }, { 0xA1, "\xC2\xA1" }, { 0xA2, "\xC2\xA2" }, { 0xA3, "\xC2\xA3" }, { 0xA4, "\xC2\xA4" }, { 0xA5, "\xC2\xA5" }, { 0xA6, "\xC2\xA6" }, { 0xA7, "\xC2\xA7" }, { 0xA8, "\xC2\xA8" }, { 0xA9, "\xC2\xA9" }, { 0xAA, "\xC2\xAA" }, { 0xAB, "\xC2\xAB" }, { 0xAC, "\xC2\xAC" }, { 0xAE, "\xC2\xAE" }, { 0xAF, "\xC2\xAF" }, { 0xB0, "\xC2\xB0" }, { 0xB1, "\xC2\xB1" }, { 0xB2, "\xC2\xB2" }, { 0xB3, "\xC2\xB3" }, { 0xB4, "\xC2\xB4" }, { 0xB5, "\xC2\xB5" }, { 0xB6, "\xC2\xB6" }, { 0xB7, "\xC2\xB7" }, { 0xB8, "\xC2\xB8" }, { 0xB9, "\xC2\xB9" }, { 0xBA, "\xC2\xBA" }, { 0xBB, "\xC2\xBB" }, { 0xBC, "\xC2\xBC" }, { 0xBD, "\xC2\xBD" }, { 0xBE, "\xC2\xBE" }, { 0xBF, "\xC2\xBF" }, { 0xC0, "\xC3\x80" }, { 0xC1, "\xC3\x81" }, { 0xC2, "\xC3\x82" }, { 0xC3, "\xC3\x83" }, { 0xC4, "\xC3\x84" }, { 0xC5, "\xC3\x85" }, { 0xC6, "\xC3\x86" }, { 0xC7, "\xC3\x87" }, { 0xC8, "\xC3\x88" }, { 0xC9, "\xC3\x89" }, { 0xCA, "\xC3\x8A" }, { 0xCB, "\xC3\x8B" }, { 0xCC, "\xC3\x8C" }, { 0xCD, "\xC3\x8D" }, { 0xCE, "\xC3\x8E" }, { 0xCF, "\xC3\x8F" }, { 0xD0, "\xC3\x90" }, { 0xD1, "\xC3\x91" }, { 0xD2, "\xC3\x92" }, { 0xD3, "\xC3\x93" }, { 0xD4, "\xC3\x94" }, { 0xD5, "\xC3\x95" }, { 0xD6, "\xC3\x96" }, { 0xD7, "\xC3\x97" }, { 0xD8, "\xC3\x98" }, { 0xD9, "\xC3\x99" }, { 0xDA, "\xC3\x9A" }, { 0xDB, "\xC3\x9B" }, { 0xDC, "\xC3\x9C" }, { 0xDD, "\xC3\x9D" }, { 0xDE, "\xC3\x9E" }, { 0xDF, "\xC3\x9F" }, { 0xE0, "\xC3\xA0" }, { 0xE1, "\xC3\xA1" }, { 0xE2, "\xC3\xA2" }, { 0xE3, "\xC3\xA3" }, { 0xE4, "\xC3\xA4" }, { 0xE5, "\xC3\xA5" }, { 0xE6, "\xC3\xA6" }, { 0xE7, "\xC3\xA7" }, { 0xE8, "\xC3\xA8" }, { 0xE9, "\xC3\xA9" }, { 0xEA, "\xC3\xAA" }, { 0xEB, "\xC3\xAB" }, { 0xEC, "\xC3\xAC" }, { 0xED, "\xC3\xAD" }, { 0xEE, "\xC3\xAE" }, { 0xEF, "\xC3\xAF" }, { 0xF0, "\xC3\xB0" }, { 0xF1, "\xC3\xB1" }, { 0xF2, "\xC3\xB2" }, { 0xF3, "\xC3\xB3" }, { 0xF4, "\xC3\xB4" }, { 0xF5, "\xC3\xB5" }, { 0xF6, "\xC3\xB6" }, { 0xF7, "\xC3\xB7" }, { 0xF8, "\xC3\xB8" }, { 0xF9, "\xC3\xB9" }, { 0xFA, "\xC3\xBA" }, { 0xFB, "\xC3\xBB" }, { 0xFC, "\xC3\xBC" }, { 0xFD, "\xC3\xBD" }, { 0xFE, "\xC3\xBE" }, { 0xFF, "\xC3\xBF" }, { 0x00, "\xC4\x80" }, { 0x01, "\xC4\x81" }, { 0x02, "\xC4\x82" }, { 0x03, "\xC4\x83" }, { 0x04, "\xC4\x84" }, { 0x05, "\xC4\x85" }, { 0x06, "\xC4\x86" }, { 0x07, "\xC4\x87" }, { 0x08, "\xC4\x88" }, { 0x09, "\xC4\x89" }, { 0x0A, "\xC4\x8A" }, { 0x0B, "\xC4\x8B" }, { 0x0C, "\xC4\x8C" }, { 0x0D, "\xC4\x8D" }, { 0x0E, "\xC4\x8E" }, { 0x0F, "\xC4\x8F" }, { 0x10, "\xC4\x90" }, { 0x11, "\xC4\x91" }, { 0x12, "\xC4\x92" }, { 0x13, "\xC4\x93" }, { 0x14, "\xC4\x94" }, { 0x15, "\xC4\x95" }, { 0x16, "\xC4\x96" }, { 0x17, "\xC4\x97" }, { 0x18, "\xC4\x98" }, { 0x19, "\xC4\x99" }, { 0x1A, "\xC4\x9A" }, { 0x1B, "\xC4\x9B" }, { 0x1C, "\xC4\x9C" }, { 0x1D, "\xC4\x9D" }, { 0x1E, "\xC4\x9E" }, { 0x1F, "\xC4\x9F" }, { 0x20, "\xC4\xA0" }, { 0x7F, "\xC4\xA1" }, { 0x80, "\xC4\xA2" }, { 0x81, "\xC4\xA3" }, { 0x82, "\xC4\xA4" }, { 0x83, "\xC4\xA5" }, { 0x84, "\xC4\xA6" }, { 0x85, "\xC4\xA7" }, { 0x86, "\xC4\xA8" }, { 0x87, "\xC4\xA9" }, { 0x88, "\xC4\xAA" }, { 0x89, "\xC4\xAB" }, { 0x8A, "\xC4\xAC" }, { 0x8B, "\xC4\xAD" }, { 0x8C, "\xC4\xAE" }, { 0x8D, "\xC4\xAF" }, { 0x8E, "\xC4\xB0" }, { 0x8F, "\xC4\xB1" }, { 0x90, "\xC4\xB2" }, { 0x91, "\xC4\xB3" }, { 0x92, "\xC4\xB4" }, { 0x93, "\xC4\xB5" }, { 0x94, "\xC4\xB6" }, { 0x95, "\xC4\xB7" }, { 0x96, "\xC4\xB8" }, { 0x97, "\xC4\xB9" }, { 0x98, "\xC4\xBA" }, { 0x99, "\xC4\xBB" }, { 0x9A, "\xC4\xBC" }, { 0x9B, "\xC4\xBD" }, { 0x9C, "\xC4\xBE" }, { 0x9D, "\xC4\xBF" }, { 0x9E, "\xC5\x80" }, { 0x9F, "\xC5\x81" }, { 0xA0, "\xC5\x82" }, { 0xAD, "\xC5\x83" }};
        return hex_map;
    }
    
    std::unordered_map<std::string, unsigned char> unicode_to_bytes() {
        static std::unordered_map<std::string, unsigned char> hex_map = { { "\x21", 0x21 }, { "\x22", 0x22 }, { "\x23", 0x23 }, { "\x24", 0x24 }, { "\x25", 0x25 }, { "\x26", 0x26 }, { "\x27", 0x27 }, { "\x28", 0x28 }, { "\x29", 0x29 }, { "\x2A", 0x2A }, { "\x2B", 0x2B }, { "\x2C", 0x2C }, { "\x2D", 0x2D }, { "\x2E", 0x2E }, { "\x2F", 0x2F }, { "\x30", 0x30 }, { "\x31", 0x31 }, { "\x32", 0x32 }, { "\x33", 0x33 }, { "\x34", 0x34 }, { "\x35", 0x35 }, { "\x36", 0x36 }, { "\x37", 0x37 }, { "\x38", 0x38 }, { "\x39", 0x39 }, { "\x3A", 0x3A }, { "\x3B", 0x3B }, { "\x3C", 0x3C }, { "\x3D", 0x3D }, { "\x3E", 0x3E }, { "\x3F", 0x3F }, { "\x40", 0x40 }, { "\x41", 0x41 }, { "\x42", 0x42 }, { "\x43", 0x43 }, { "\x44", 0x44 }, { "\x45", 0x45 }, { "\x46", 0x46 }, { "\x47", 0x47 }, { "\x48", 0x48 }, { "\x49", 0x49 }, { "\x4A", 0x4A }, { "\x4B", 0x4B }, { "\x4C", 0x4C }, { "\x4D", 0x4D }, { "\x4E", 0x4E }, { "\x4F", 0x4F }, { "\x50", 0x50 }, { "\x51", 0x51 }, { "\x52", 0x52 }, { "\x53", 0x53 }, { "\x54", 0x54 }, { "\x55", 0x55 }, { "\x56", 0x56 }, { "\x57", 0x57 }, { "\x58", 0x58 }, { "\x59", 0x59 }, { "\x5A", 0x5A }, { "\x5B", 0x5B }, { "\x5C", 0x5C }, { "\x5D", 0x5D }, { "\x5E", 0x5E }, { "\x5F", 0x5F }, { "\x60", 0x60 }, { "\x61", 0x61 }, { "\x62", 0x62 }, { "\x63", 0x63 }, { "\x64", 0x64 }, { "\x65", 0x65 }, { "\x66", 0x66 }, { "\x67", 0x67 }, { "\x68", 0x68 }, { "\x69", 0x69 }, { "\x6A", 0x6A }, { "\x6B", 0x6B }, { "\x6C", 0x6C }, { "\x6D", 0x6D }, { "\x6E", 0x6E }, { "\x6F", 0x6F }, { "\x70", 0x70 }, { "\x71", 0x71 }, { "\x72", 0x72 }, { "\x73", 0x73 }, { "\x74", 0x74 }, { "\x75", 0x75 }, { "\x76", 0x76 }, { "\x77", 0x77 }, { "\x78", 0x78 }, { "\x79", 0x79 }, { "\x7A", 0x7A }, { "\x7B", 0x7B }, { "\x7C", 0x7C }, { "\x7D", 0x7D }, { "\x7E", 0x7E }, { "\xC2\xA1", 0xA1 }, { "\xC2\xA2", 0xA2 }, { "\xC2\xA3", 0xA3 }, { "\xC2\xA4", 0xA4 }, { "\xC2\xA5", 0xA5 }, { "\xC2\xA6", 0xA6 }, { "\xC2\xA7", 0xA7 }, { "\xC2\xA8", 0xA8 }, { "\xC2\xA9", 0xA9 }, { "\xC2\xAA", 0xAA }, { "\xC2\xAB", 0xAB }, { "\xC2\xAC", 0xAC }, { "\xC2\xAE", 0xAE }, { "\xC2\xAF", 0xAF }, { "\xC2\xB0", 0xB0 }, { "\xC2\xB1", 0xB1 }, { "\xC2\xB2", 0xB2 }, { "\xC2\xB3", 0xB3 }, { "\xC2\xB4", 0xB4 }, { "\xC2\xB5", 0xB5 }, { "\xC2\xB6", 0xB6 }, { "\xC2\xB7", 0xB7 }, { "\xC2\xB8", 0xB8 }, { "\xC2\xB9", 0xB9 }, { "\xC2\xBA", 0xBA }, { "\xC2\xBB", 0xBB }, { "\xC2\xBC", 0xBC }, { "\xC2\xBD", 0xBD }, { "\xC2\xBE", 0xBE }, { "\xC2\xBF", 0xBF }, { "\xC3\x80", 0xC0 }, { "\xC3\x81", 0xC1 }, { "\xC3\x82", 0xC2 }, { "\xC3\x83", 0xC3 }, { "\xC3\x84", 0xC4 }, { "\xC3\x85", 0xC5 }, { "\xC3\x86", 0xC6 }, { "\xC3\x87", 0xC7 }, { "\xC3\x88", 0xC8 }, { "\xC3\x89", 0xC9 }, { "\xC3\x8A", 0xCA }, { "\xC3\x8B", 0xCB }, { "\xC3\x8C", 0xCC }, { "\xC3\x8D", 0xCD }, { "\xC3\x8E", 0xCE }, { "\xC3\x8F", 0xCF }, { "\xC3\x90", 0xD0 }, { "\xC3\x91", 0xD1 }, { "\xC3\x92", 0xD2 }, { "\xC3\x93", 0xD3 }, { "\xC3\x94", 0xD4 }, { "\xC3\x95", 0xD5 }, { "\xC3\x96", 0xD6 }, { "\xC3\x97", 0xD7 }, { "\xC3\x98", 0xD8 }, { "\xC3\x99", 0xD9 }, { "\xC3\x9A", 0xDA }, { "\xC3\x9B", 0xDB }, { "\xC3\x9C", 0xDC }, { "\xC3\x9D", 0xDD }, { "\xC3\x9E", 0xDE }, { "\xC3\x9F", 0xDF }, { "\xC3\xA0", 0xE0 }, { "\xC3\xA1", 0xE1 }, { "\xC3\xA2", 0xE2 }, { "\xC3\xA3", 0xE3 }, { "\xC3\xA4", 0xE4 }, { "\xC3\xA5", 0xE5 }, { "\xC3\xA6", 0xE6 }, { "\xC3\xA7", 0xE7 }, { "\xC3\xA8", 0xE8 }, { "\xC3\xA9", 0xE9 }, { "\xC3\xAA", 0xEA }, { "\xC3\xAB", 0xEB }, { "\xC3\xAC", 0xEC }, { "\xC3\xAD", 0xED }, { "\xC3\xAE", 0xEE }, { "\xC3\xAF", 0xEF }, { "\xC3\xB0", 0xF0 }, { "\xC3\xB1", 0xF1 }, { "\xC3\xB2", 0xF2 }, { "\xC3\xB3", 0xF3 }, { "\xC3\xB4", 0xF4 }, { "\xC3\xB5", 0xF5 }, { "\xC3\xB6", 0xF6 }, { "\xC3\xB7", 0xF7 }, { "\xC3\xB8", 0xF8 }, { "\xC3\xB9", 0xF9 }, { "\xC3\xBA", 0xFA }, { "\xC3\xBB", 0xFB }, { "\xC3\xBC", 0xFC }, { "\xC3\xBD", 0xFD }, { "\xC3\xBE", 0xFE }, { "\xC3\xBF", 0xFF }, { "\xC4\x80", 0x00 }, { "\xC4\x81", 0x01 }, { "\xC4\x82", 0x02 }, { "\xC4\x83", 0x03 }, { "\xC4\x84", 0x04 }, { "\xC4\x85", 0x05 }, { "\xC4\x86", 0x06 }, { "\xC4\x87", 0x07 }, { "\xC4\x88", 0x08 }, { "\xC4\x89", 0x09 }, { "\xC4\x8A", 0x0A }, { "\xC4\x8B", 0x0B }, { "\xC4\x8C", 0x0C }, { "\xC4\x8D", 0x0D }, { "\xC4\x8E", 0x0E }, { "\xC4\x8F", 0x0F }, { "\xC4\x90", 0x10 }, { "\xC4\x91", 0x11 }, { "\xC4\x92", 0x12 }, { "\xC4\x93", 0x13 }, { "\xC4\x94", 0x14 }, { "\xC4\x95", 0x15 }, { "\xC4\x96", 0x16 }, { "\xC4\x97", 0x17 }, { "\xC4\x98", 0x18 }, { "\xC4\x99", 0x19 }, { "\xC4\x9A", 0x1A }, { "\xC4\x9B", 0x1B }, { "\xC4\x9C", 0x1C }, { "\xC4\x9D", 0x1D }, { "\xC4\x9E", 0x1E }, { "\xC4\x9F", 0x1F }, { "\xC4\xA0", 0x20 }, { "\xC4\xA1", 0x7F }, { "\xC4\xA2", 0x80 }, { "\xC4\xA3", 0x81 }, { "\xC4\xA4", 0x82 }, { "\xC4\xA5", 0x83 }, { "\xC4\xA6", 0x84 }, { "\xC4\xA7", 0x85 }, { "\xC4\xA8", 0x86 }, { "\xC4\xA9", 0x87 }, { "\xC4\xAA", 0x88 }, { "\xC4\xAB", 0x89 }, { "\xC4\xAC", 0x8A }, { "\xC4\xAD", 0x8B }, { "\xC4\xAE", 0x8C }, { "\xC4\xAF", 0x8D }, { "\xC4\xB0", 0x8E }, { "\xC4\xB1", 0x8F }, { "\xC4\xB2", 0x90 }, { "\xC4\xB3", 0x91 }, { "\xC4\xB4", 0x92 }, { "\xC4\xB5", 0x93 }, { "\xC4\xB6", 0x94 }, { "\xC4\xB7", 0x95 }, { "\xC4\xB8", 0x96 }, { "\xC4\xB9", 0x97 }, { "\xC4\xBA", 0x98 }, { "\xC4\xBB", 0x99 }, { "\xC4\xBC", 0x9A }, { "\xC4\xBD", 0x9B }, { "\xC4\xBE", 0x9C }, { "\xC4\xBF", 0x9D }, { "\xC5\x80", 0x9E }, { "\xC5\x81", 0x9F }, { "\xC5\x82", 0xA0 }, { "\xC5\x83", 0xAD }};
        return hex_map;
    }
    // len must be available
    bool inline str_is_equal(const char* str1, const char* str2, size_t len) {
        for (size_t i = 0; i < len; ++i) {
            if (str1[i] != str2[i]) {
                return false;
            }
        }
        return true;
    }
    std::vector<std::string> bpe_gpt2_preprocess(const std::string& text) 
    {
        static std::unordered_map< unsigned char, std::string> byte_encoder = bytes_to_unicode();
        std::vector<std::string> bpe_words;
        std::vector<std::string> bpe_encoded_words;
        

        std::string token="";
        const char *raw_text_p = text.c_str();
        // GPT2 system regex:  's|'t|'re|'ve|'m|'ll|'d| ?\p{L}+| ?\p{N}+| ?[^\s\p{L}\p{N}]+|\s+(?!\S)|\s+
        bool collecting_numeric = false;
        bool collecting_letter = false;
        bool collecting_special = false;
        bool collecting_whitespace_lookahead = false;
        bool collecting=false;

        std::vector<CNCTString> text_utf;
        text_utf.reserve(text.size());
        bpe_words.reserve(text.size());
        bpe_encoded_words.reserve(text.size());

        text_utf = CNCTUnicode::split_utf8_enhanced(text);
        std::map<std::string, int> special_tokens = vocab_.special_tokens;
        int smallest_len_special_tokens = 0;
        if (special_tokens.size())
        {
            smallest_len_special_tokens = special_tokens.begin()->first.size();
            for (auto it = special_tokens.begin(); it != special_tokens.end(); ++it)
            {
                if (it->first.size() < (size_t)smallest_len_special_tokens)
                    smallest_len_special_tokens = it->first.size();
            }
        }
        
        for (int i = 0; i < (int)text_utf.size(); i++) 
        {
            const CNCTString &utf_char = text_utf[i];
            bool split_condition = false;
            const char *text_pos = raw_text_p + utf_char.seq_offset_bytes;
            int bytes_remain = strlen(text_pos);
            // forward backward lookups
            const CNCTString &utf_char_next = (i+1 < (int)text_utf.size()) ? text_utf[i+1] : CNCTString();
            const CNCTString &utf_char_next_next = (i+2 < (int)text_utf.size()) ? text_utf[i+2] : CNCTString();
            // const CNCTString &utf_char_prev = (i > 0) ? text_utf[i-1] : CNCTString();
        
        // handling special tokens
            bool special_token_found = false;
            if (bytes_remain >= (int)smallest_len_special_tokens)
            for (auto it = special_tokens.begin(); it != special_tokens.end(); ++it)
            {
                if ((bytes_remain) < (int)it->first.size())
                    continue;

                if (str_is_equal(text_pos, it->first.c_str(), it->first.size()))
                {
                    if (token.size())
                    {
                        bpe_words.emplace_back(token); // push previous content as token
                        token.clear();
                        collecting = false;
                        collecting_letter = false;
                        collecting_numeric = false;
                        collecting_special = false;
                        collecting_whitespace_lookahead = false;
                    }

                    bpe_words.emplace_back(it->first); // push special token as token
                    
                    // we now advance i until the token is fulfilled by the utf_chars
                    int st_bytes = (int)it->first.size();
                    for (;st_bytes;st_bytes -= text_utf[i++].str.size());
                    i--;
                    special_token_found = true;
                    break;
                }
            }
            
            if (special_token_found)   continue;


            // handling contractions
            if (!split_condition && bytes_remain >= 2)
            {
                // 's|'t|'m|'d
                if (utf_char == '\'' && (utf_char_next == 's' || utf_char_next == 't' || utf_char_next == 'm' || utf_char_next == 'd'))
                    split_condition = true;
                if (split_condition)
                {
                    if (token.size())
                        bpe_words.emplace_back(token); // push previous content as token
                    token = utf_char.str + utf_char_next.str; 
                    bpe_words.emplace_back(token); 
                    token="";
                    i++;
                    continue;
                }
            }
            if (!split_condition && bytes_remain >= 3)
            {
                // 're|'ve|'ll
                if (utf_char == '\'' && (
                    (utf_char_next == 'r' || utf_char_next_next == 'e') ||
                    (utf_char_next == 'v' || utf_char_next_next == 'e') ||
                    (utf_char_next == 'l' || utf_char_next_next == 'l')) 
                )
                    split_condition = true;
                if (split_condition)
                {
                    // current token + next token can be defined
                    if (token.size())
                        bpe_words.emplace_back(token); // push previous content as token
                    token = utf_char.str + utf_char_next.str + utf_char_next_next.str; 
                    bpe_words.emplace_back(token); // the contraction
                    token="";
                    i+=2;
                    continue;
                }
            }

            if (!split_condition && !collecting)
            {
                if (utf_char.char_type == CNCTCharType::LETTER || (!token.size() && utf_char==" " && utf_char_next.char_type == CNCTCharType::LETTER)) 
                {
                    collecting_letter = true;
                    collecting = true;
                }
                else if (utf_char.char_type == CNCTCharType::DIGIT || (!token.size() && utf_char==" " && utf_char_next.char_type == CNCTCharType::DIGIT))
                {
                    collecting_numeric = true;
                    collecting = true;
                }
                else if (
                    ((utf_char.char_type != CNCTCharType::LETTER && utf_char.char_type != CNCTCharType::DIGIT) && (utf_char.char_type != CNCTCharType::WHITESPACE)) ||
                    (!token.size() && utf_char==" " && utf_char_next.char_type != CNCTCharType::LETTER && utf_char_next.char_type != CNCTCharType::DIGIT && utf_char_next.char_type != CNCTCharType::WHITESPACE)
                    )
                {
                    collecting_special = true;
                    collecting = true; 
                }
                else if (utf_char.char_type == CNCTCharType::WHITESPACE && utf_char_next.char_type == CNCTCharType::WHITESPACE)
                {
                    collecting_whitespace_lookahead = true;
                    collecting = true;
                } else if (utf_char.char_type == CNCTCharType::WHITESPACE)
                {
                    split_condition = true;
                }
            } else
            if (!split_condition && collecting)
            {
                if (collecting_letter && utf_char.char_type != CNCTCharType::LETTER)
                {
                    split_condition = true;
                }
                else if (collecting_numeric && utf_char.char_type != CNCTCharType::DIGIT)
                {
                    split_condition = true;
                }
                else if (collecting_special && (utf_char.char_type == CNCTCharType::LETTER || utf_char.char_type == CNCTCharType::DIGIT || utf_char.char_type == CNCTCharType::WHITESPACE))
                {
                    split_condition = true;
                }
                else if (collecting_whitespace_lookahead && utf_char_next.char_type != CNCTCharType::WHITESPACE)
                {
                    split_condition = true;
                }
            }
            if(utf_char_next.str.size() == 0)
            {
                split_condition = true; // final
                token += utf_char.str;
            }

            if (split_condition)
            {
                if (token.size())
                    bpe_words.emplace_back(token);
                token = utf_char.str;
                collecting = false;
                collecting_letter = false;
                collecting_numeric = false;
                collecting_special = false;
                collecting_whitespace_lookahead = false;
            } else token += utf_char.str;
        }

        for (std::string& word : bpe_words)
        {
            std::string encoded_token="";
            for (char& c : word) 
            {
                encoded_token += byte_encoder[c];
            }
            bpe_encoded_words.emplace_back(encoded_token);
        }

        return bpe_encoded_words;
    }

    // decoder (for one token)
    std::string decode_token(const std::string& token)
    {
        static std::unordered_map< std::string, unsigned char> byte_decoder = unicode_to_bytes();
        std::string decoded_token="";
        auto unicode_seqeunces = CNCTUnicode::split_utf8(token);
        for (auto& unicode_sequence : unicode_seqeunces)
        {
            decoded_token += byte_decoder[unicode_sequence];
          
        }
        
        return decoded_token;
    }
        

    const falcon_vocab & vocab_;
    std::vector<ggllm_bpe_symbol> symbols_;
    std::vector<ggllm_bpe_symbol> symbols_final;
    ggllm_bpe_bigram::queue work_queue_;
    bool flag_g2ws=false;
};

static std::vector<falcon_vocab::id> falcon_tokenize(const falcon_vocab & vocab, const std::string & text, bool bos, bool g2ws) {
    falcon_tokenizer tokenizer(vocab, g2ws);
    std::vector<falcon_vocab::id> output;

    if (text.empty()) {
        return output;
    }

    if (bos) {
        output.push_back(falcon_token_bos());
    }

    tokenizer.tokenize(text, output);
    return output;
}

//
// sampling
//
// softmax normalize
void llama_sample_softmax(struct falcon_context * ctx, falcon_token_data_array * candidates) {
    assert(candidates->size > 0);

    const int64_t t_start_sample_us = ggml_time_us();

    // Sort the logits in descending order
    if (!candidates->sorted) {
        std::sort(candidates->data, candidates->data + candidates->size, [](const falcon_token_data & a, const falcon_token_data & b) {
            return a.logit > b.logit;
        });
        candidates->sorted = true;
    }

    float max_l = candidates->data[0].logit;
    float cum_sum = 0.0f;
    for (size_t i = 0; i < candidates->size; ++i) {
        float p = expf(candidates->data[i].logit - max_l);
        candidates->data[i].p = p;
        cum_sum += p;
    }
    for (size_t i = 0; i < candidates->size; ++i) {
        candidates->data[i].p /= cum_sum;
    }

    if (ctx) {
        ctx->t_sample_us += ggml_time_us() - t_start_sample_us;
    }
}

void llama_sample_log_softmax(struct falcon_context * ctx, falcon_token_data_array * candidates) {
    assert(candidates->size > 0);

    const int64_t t_start_sample_us = ggml_time_us();

    // Sort the logits in descending order
    if (!candidates->sorted) {
        std::sort(candidates->data, candidates->data + candidates->size, [](const falcon_token_data & a, const falcon_token_data & b) {
            return a.logit > b.logit;
        });
        candidates->sorted = true;
    }

    float max_l = candidates->data[0].logit;
    float cum_sum = 0.0f;
    for (size_t i = 0; i < candidates->size; ++i) {
        float p = expf(candidates->data[i].logit - max_l);
        candidates->data[i].p = p;
        cum_sum += p;
    }
    for (size_t i = 0; i < candidates->size; ++i) {
        candidates->data[i].p = logf(candidates->data[i].p / cum_sum);
    }

    if (ctx) {
        ctx->t_sample_us += ggml_time_us() - t_start_sample_us;
    }
}
// top_k - cut pool to k best candidates (defaults ~ 40)
void llama_sample_top_k(struct falcon_context * ctx, falcon_token_data_array * candidates, int k, size_t min_keep) {
    const int64_t t_start_sample_us = ggml_time_us();

    k = std::max(k, (int) min_keep);
    k = std::min(k, (int) candidates->size);

    // Sort scores in descending order
    if (!candidates->sorted) {
        auto comp = [](const falcon_token_data & a, const falcon_token_data & b) {
            return a.logit > b.logit;
        };
        if (k == (int) candidates->size) {
            std::sort(candidates->data, candidates->data + candidates->size, comp);
        } else {
            std::partial_sort(candidates->data, candidates->data + k, candidates->data + candidates->size, comp);
        }
        candidates->sorted = true;
    }
    candidates->size = k;

    if (ctx) {
        ctx->t_sample_us += ggml_time_us() - t_start_sample_us;
    }
}

// top_p - cut pool to tokens with cumulative probability > p (defaults 1.0)
void llama_sample_top_p(struct falcon_context * ctx, falcon_token_data_array * candidates, float p, size_t min_keep) {
    if (p >= 1.0f) {
        return;
    }

    const int64_t t_start_sample_us = ggml_time_us();

    llama_sample_softmax(ctx, candidates);

    // Compute the cumulative probabilities
    float cum_sum = 0.0f;
    size_t last_idx = candidates->size;

    for (size_t i = 0; i < candidates->size; ++i) {
        cum_sum += candidates->data[i].p;

        // Check if the running sum is greater than p or if we have kept at least min_keep tokens
        if (cum_sum > p && i >= min_keep) {
            last_idx = i;
            break;
        }
    }

    // Resize the output vector to keep only the top-p tokens
    candidates->size = last_idx;

    if (ctx) {
        ctx->t_sample_us += ggml_time_us() - t_start_sample_us;
    }
}

// remove low probability tail (not too useful with low top_k)
void llama_sample_tail_free(struct falcon_context * ctx, falcon_token_data_array * candidates, float z, size_t min_keep) {
    if (z >= 1.0f || candidates->size <= 2) {
        return;
    }

    const int64_t t_start_sample_us = ggml_time_us();

    llama_sample_softmax(nullptr, candidates);

    // Compute the first and second derivatives
    std::vector<float> first_derivatives(candidates->size - 1);
    std::vector<float> second_derivatives(candidates->size - 2);

    for (size_t i = 0; i < first_derivatives.size(); ++i) {
        first_derivatives[i] = candidates->data[i].p - candidates->data[i + 1].p;
    }
    for (size_t i = 0; i < second_derivatives.size(); ++i) {
        second_derivatives[i] = first_derivatives[i] - first_derivatives[i + 1];
    }

    // Calculate absolute value of second derivatives
    for (size_t i = 0; i < second_derivatives.size(); ++i) {
        second_derivatives[i] = abs(second_derivatives[i]);
    }

    // Normalize the second derivatives
    float second_derivatives_sum = std::accumulate(second_derivatives.begin(), second_derivatives.end(), 0.0f);
    for (float & value : second_derivatives) {
        value /= second_derivatives_sum;
    }

    float cum_sum = 0.0f;
    size_t last_idx = candidates->size;
    for (size_t i = 0; i < second_derivatives.size(); ++i) {
        cum_sum += second_derivatives[i];

        // Check if the running sum is greater than z or if we have kept at least min_keep tokens
        if (cum_sum > z && i >= min_keep) {
            last_idx = i;
            break;
        }
    }

    // Resize the output vector to keep only the tokens above the tail location
    candidates->size = last_idx;

    if (ctx) {
        ctx->t_sample_us += ggml_time_us() - t_start_sample_us;
    }
}

// favor more typical tokens out of the pool based on the randomness of the total pool distribution
void llama_sample_typical(struct falcon_context * ctx, falcon_token_data_array * candidates, float p, size_t min_keep) {
    // Reference implementation:
    // https://github.com/huggingface/transformers/compare/main...cimeister:typical-sampling:typical-pr
    if (p >= 1.0f) {
        return;
    }

    const int64_t t_start_sample_us = ggml_time_us();

    // Compute the softmax of logits and calculate entropy
    llama_sample_softmax(nullptr, candidates);

    float entropy = 0.0f;
    for (size_t i = 0; i < candidates->size; ++i) {
        entropy += -candidates->data[i].p * logf(candidates->data[i].p);
    }

    // Compute the absolute difference between negative log probability and entropy for each candidate
    std::vector<float> shifted_scores;
    for (size_t i = 0; i < candidates->size; ++i) {
        float shifted_score = fabsf(-logf(candidates->data[i].p) - entropy);
        shifted_scores.push_back(shifted_score);
    }

    // Sort tokens based on the shifted_scores and their corresponding indices
    std::vector<size_t> indices(candidates->size);
    std::iota(indices.begin(), indices.end(), 0);

    std::sort(indices.begin(), indices.end(), [&](size_t a, size_t b) {
        return shifted_scores[a] < shifted_scores[b];
    });

    // Compute the cumulative probabilities
    float cum_sum = 0.0f;
    size_t last_idx = indices.size();

    for (size_t i = 0; i < indices.size(); ++i) {
        size_t idx = indices[i];
        cum_sum += candidates->data[idx].p;

        // Check if the running sum is greater than typical or if we have kept at least min_keep tokens
        if (cum_sum > p && i >= min_keep - 1) {
            last_idx = i + 1;
            break;
        }
    }

    // Resize the output vector to keep only the locally typical tokens
    std::vector<falcon_token_data> new_candidates;
    for (size_t i = 0; i < last_idx; ++i) {
        size_t idx = indices[i];
        new_candidates.push_back(candidates->data[idx]);
    }

    // Replace the data in candidates with the new_candidates data
    std::copy(new_candidates.begin(), new_candidates.end(), candidates->data);
    candidates->size = new_candidates.size();

    if (ctx) {
        ctx->t_sample_us += ggml_time_us() - t_start_sample_us;
    }
}
// increases the absolute candidate values, another softmax will make it more peaky at low temperatures (high scale)
void llama_sample_temperature(struct falcon_context * ctx, falcon_token_data_array * candidates_p, float temp) {
    const int64_t t_start_sample_us = ggml_time_us();

    for (size_t i = 0; i < candidates_p->size; ++i) {
        candidates_p->data[i].logit /= temp;
    }

    if (ctx) {
        ctx->t_sample_us += ggml_time_us() - t_start_sample_us;
    }
}

void llama_sample_repetition_penalty(struct falcon_context * ctx, falcon_token_data_array * candidates, const falcon_token * last_tokens, size_t last_tokens_size, float penalty) {
    if (last_tokens_size == 0 || penalty == 1.0f) {
        return;
    }

    const int64_t t_start_sample_us = ggml_time_us();

    for (size_t i = 0; i < candidates->size; ++i) {
        const auto * token_iter = std::find(last_tokens, last_tokens + last_tokens_size, candidates->data[i].id);
        if (token_iter == last_tokens + last_tokens_size) {
            continue;
        }

        // The academic publication that described this technique actually just only divided, but that would cause tokens with negative logits to become more likely, which is obviously wrong.
        // This is common fix for this problem, which is to multiply by the penalty instead of dividing.
        if (candidates->data[i].logit <= 0) {
            candidates->data[i].logit *= penalty;
        } else {
            candidates->data[i].logit /= penalty;
        }
    }

    candidates->sorted = false;

    if (ctx) {
        ctx->t_sample_us += ggml_time_us() - t_start_sample_us;
    }
}

void llama_sample_frequency_and_presence_penalties(struct falcon_context * ctx, falcon_token_data_array * candidates, const falcon_token * last_tokens_p, size_t last_tokens_size, float alpha_frequency, float alpha_presence) {
    if (last_tokens_size == 0 || (alpha_frequency == 0.0f && alpha_presence == 0.0f)) {
        return;
    }

    const int64_t t_start_sample_us = ggml_time_us();

    // Create a frequency map to count occurrences of each token in last_tokens
    std::unordered_map<falcon_token, int> token_count;
    for (size_t i = 0; i < last_tokens_size; ++i) {
        token_count[last_tokens_p[i]]++;
    }

    // Apply frequency and presence penalties to the candidates
    for (size_t i = 0; i < candidates->size; ++i) {
        auto token_iter = token_count.find(candidates->data[i].id);
        if (token_iter == token_count.end()) {
            continue;
        }

        int count = token_iter->second;
        candidates->data[i].logit -= float(count) * alpha_frequency + float(count > 0) * alpha_presence;
    }

    candidates->sorted = false;

    if (ctx) {
        ctx->t_sample_us += ggml_time_us() - t_start_sample_us;
    }
}


falcon_token llama_sample_token_mirostat(struct falcon_context * ctx, falcon_token_data_array * candidates, float tau, float eta, int m, float * mu) {
    assert(ctx);
    auto N = float(falcon_n_vocab(ctx));
    int64_t t_start_sample_us;
    t_start_sample_us = ggml_time_us();

    llama_sample_softmax(nullptr, candidates);

    // Estimate s_hat using the most probable m tokens
    float s_hat = 0.0;
    float sum_ti_bi = 0.0;
    float sum_ti_sq = 0.0;
    for (size_t i = 0; i < size_t(m - 1) && i < candidates->size - 1; ++i) {
        float t_i = logf(float(i + 2) / float(i + 1));
        float b_i = logf(candidates->data[i].p / candidates->data[i + 1].p);
        sum_ti_bi += t_i * b_i;
        sum_ti_sq += t_i * t_i;
    }
    s_hat = sum_ti_bi / sum_ti_sq;

    // Compute k from the estimated s_hat and target surprise value
    float epsilon_hat = s_hat - 1;
    float k = powf((epsilon_hat * powf(2, *mu)) / (1 - powf(N, -epsilon_hat)), 1 / s_hat);

    // Sample the next word X using top-k sampling
    llama_sample_top_k(nullptr, candidates, int(k), 1);
    if (ctx) {
        ctx->t_sample_us += ggml_time_us() - t_start_sample_us;
    }
    falcon_token X = llama_sample_token(ctx, candidates);
    t_start_sample_us = ggml_time_us();

    // Compute error as the difference between observed surprise and target surprise value
    size_t X_idx = std::distance(candidates->data, std::find_if(candidates->data, candidates->data + candidates->size, [&](const falcon_token_data & candidate) {
        return candidate.id == X;
    }));
    float observed_surprise = -log2f(candidates->data[X_idx].p);
    float e = observed_surprise - tau;

    // Update mu using the learning rate and error
    *mu = *mu - eta * e;

    if (ctx) {
        ctx->t_sample_us += ggml_time_us() - t_start_sample_us;
        ctx->n_sample++;
    }
    return X;
}

falcon_token llama_sample_token_mirostat_v2(struct falcon_context * ctx, falcon_token_data_array * candidates, float tau, float eta, float * mu) {
    assert(ctx);
    int64_t t_start_sample_us;
    t_start_sample_us = ggml_time_us();

    llama_sample_softmax(ctx, candidates);

    // Truncate the words with surprise values greater than mu
    candidates->size = std::distance(candidates->data, std::find_if(candidates->data, candidates->data + candidates->size, [&](const falcon_token_data & candidate) {
        return -log2f(candidate.p) > *mu;
    }));

    if (candidates->size == 0) {
        candidates->size = 1;
    }

    // Normalize the probabilities of the remaining words
    llama_sample_softmax(ctx, candidates);

    // Sample the next word X from the remaining words
    if (ctx) {
        ctx->t_sample_us += ggml_time_us() - t_start_sample_us;
    }
    falcon_token X = llama_sample_token(ctx, candidates);
    t_start_sample_us = ggml_time_us();

    // Compute error as the difference between observed surprise and target surprise value
    size_t X_idx = std::distance(candidates->data, std::find_if(candidates->data, candidates->data + candidates->size, [&](const falcon_token_data & candidate) {
        return candidate.id == X;
    }));
    float observed_surprise = -log2f(candidates->data[X_idx].p);
    float e = observed_surprise - tau;

    // Update mu using the learning rate and error
    *mu = *mu - eta * e;

    if (ctx) {
        ctx->t_sample_us += ggml_time_us() - t_start_sample_us;
    }
    return X;
}

falcon_token llama_sample_token_greedy(struct falcon_context * ctx, falcon_token_data_array * candidates) {
    const int64_t t_start_sample_us = ggml_time_us();

    // Find max element
    auto * max_iter = std::max_element(candidates->data, candidates->data + candidates->size, [](const falcon_token_data & a, const falcon_token_data & b) {
        return a.logit < b.logit;
    });

    falcon_token result = max_iter->id;
    if (ctx) {
        ctx->t_sample_us += ggml_time_us() - t_start_sample_us;
        ctx->n_sample++;
    }
    return result;
}

falcon_token llama_sample_token(struct falcon_context * ctx, falcon_token_data_array * candidates) {
    assert(ctx);
    const int64_t t_start_sample_us = ggml_time_us();
    llama_sample_softmax(nullptr, candidates);

    std::vector<float> probs;
    probs.reserve(candidates->size);
    for (size_t i = 0; i < candidates->size; ++i) {
        probs.push_back(candidates->data[i].p);
    }

    std::discrete_distribution<> dist(probs.begin(), probs.end());
    auto & rng = ctx->rng;
    int idx = dist(rng);

    falcon_token result = candidates->data[idx].id;

    ctx->t_sample_us += ggml_time_us() - t_start_sample_us;
    ctx->n_sample++;
    return result;
}

//
// quantization
//

static void llama_convert_tensor_internal(const falcon_load_tensor & tensor, llama_buffer & output, const int nelements, const int nthread) {
    if (output.size < nelements * sizeof(float)) {
        output.resize(nelements * sizeof(float));
    }
    float * f32_output = (float *) output.addr;

    quantize_fns_t qtype;
    if (ggml_is_quantized(tensor.type)) {
        qtype = ggml_internal_get_quantize_fn(tensor.type);
        if (qtype.dequantize_row_q == NULL) {
            throw std::runtime_error(format("type %s unsupported for integer quantization: no dequantization available", ggml_type_name(tensor.type)));
        }
    } else if (tensor.type != GGML_TYPE_F16) {
        throw std::runtime_error(format("cannot dequantize/convert tensor type %s", ggml_type_name(tensor.type)));
    }

    if (nthread < 2) {
        if (tensor.type == GGML_TYPE_F16) {
            ggml_fp16_to_fp32_row((ggml_fp16_t *)tensor.data, f32_output, nelements);
        } else if (ggml_is_quantized(tensor.type)) {
            qtype.dequantize_row_q(tensor.data, f32_output, nelements);
        } else {
            FALCON_ASSERT(false); // unreachable
        }
        return;
    }

    auto block_size = tensor.type == GGML_TYPE_F16 ? 1 : (size_t)ggml_blck_size(tensor.type);
    auto block_size_bytes = ggml_type_size(tensor.type);

    FALCON_ASSERT(nelements % block_size == 0);
    auto nblocks = nelements / block_size;
    auto blocks_per_thread = nblocks / nthread;
    auto spare_blocks = nblocks - (blocks_per_thread * nthread); // if blocks aren't divisible by thread count

    std::vector<std::thread> workers;
    for (auto tnum = 0, in_buff_offs = 0, out_buff_offs = 0; tnum < nthread; tnum++) {
        auto thr_blocks = blocks_per_thread + (tnum == nthread - 1 ? spare_blocks : 0); // num blocks for this thread
        auto thr_elems = thr_blocks * block_size; // number of elements for this thread
        auto thr_block_bytes = thr_blocks * block_size_bytes; // number of input bytes for this thread

        auto compute = [qtype] (ggml_type typ, uint8_t * inbuf, float * outbuf, int nels) {
            if (typ == GGML_TYPE_F16) {
                ggml_fp16_to_fp32_row((ggml_fp16_t *)inbuf, outbuf, nels);
            } else {
                qtype.dequantize_row_q(inbuf, outbuf, nels);
            }
        };
        workers.push_back(std::thread(compute, tensor.type, tensor.data + in_buff_offs, f32_output + out_buff_offs, thr_elems));
        in_buff_offs += thr_block_bytes;
        out_buff_offs += thr_elems;
    }
    for (auto & worker : workers) {
        worker.join();
    }

}

static void falcon_model_quantize_internal(const std::string & fname_inp, const std::string & fname_out, const llama_model_quantize_params * params) {
    ggml_type quantized_type;
    llama_ftype ftype = params->ftype;
    int nthread = params->nthread;

    switch (params->ftype) {
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q4_0: quantized_type = GGML_TYPE_Q4_0; break;
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q4_1: quantized_type = GGML_TYPE_Q4_1; break;
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q5_0: quantized_type = GGML_TYPE_Q5_0; break;
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q5_1: quantized_type = GGML_TYPE_Q5_1; break;
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q8_0: quantized_type = GGML_TYPE_Q8_0; break;
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_F16: quantized_type = GGML_TYPE_F16; break;
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_ALL_F32: quantized_type = GGML_TYPE_F32; break;

#ifdef GGML_USE_K_QUANTS
        // K-quants
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q2_K:   quantized_type = GGML_TYPE_Q2_K; break;
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q3_K_S:
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q3_K_M:
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q3_K_L: quantized_type = GGML_TYPE_Q3_K; break;
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q4_K_S:
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q4_K_M: quantized_type = GGML_TYPE_Q4_K; break;
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q5_K_S:
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q5_K_M: quantized_type = GGML_TYPE_Q5_K; break;
        case LLAMA_FTYPE_MOSTLY_Q6_K:   quantized_type = GGML_TYPE_Q6_K; break;
#endif
        default: throw std::runtime_error(format("invalid output file type %d\n", ftype));
    }

    if (nthread <= 0) {
        nthread = std::thread::hardware_concurrency();
    }

    std::unique_ptr<llama_model_loader> model_loader(new llama_model_loader(fname_inp, /*use_mmap*/ false,
                                                                            /*vocab_only*/ false));
    llama_file_saver file_saver(fname_out.c_str(), model_loader->file_loaders.at(0).get(), params->ftype);

#ifdef GGML_USE_K_QUANTS
    int n_attention_wv    = 0;
    int n_feed_forward_w2 = 0;
    for (auto& tensor : model_loader->tensors_map.tensors) {
        if (tensor.name.find("attention.wv.weight") != std::string::npos) {
            ++n_attention_wv;
        }
        else if (tensor.name.find("feed_forward.w2.weight") != std::string::npos) {
            ++n_feed_forward_w2;
        }
    }

    // int i_attention_wv = 0;
    // int i_feed_forward_w2 = 0;
#endif

    size_t total_size_org = 0;
    size_t total_size_new = 0;
    std::vector<int64_t> hist_all(1 << 4, 0);

    std::vector<std::thread> workers;
    std::mutex mutex;

    size_t idx = 0;
    for (falcon_load_tensor & tensor : model_loader->tensors_map.tensors) {
        llama_buffer read_data;
        read_data.resize(tensor.size);
        tensor.data = read_data.addr;
        model_loader->load_data_for(tensor);

        printf("[%4zu/%4zu] %36s - %16s, type = %6s, ",
               ++idx, model_loader->tensors_map.tensors.size(),
               tensor.name.c_str(), llama_format_tensor_shape(tensor.ne).c_str(),
               ggml_type_name(tensor.type));

        // This used to be a regex, but <regex> has an extreme cost to compile times.
        bool quantize = tensor.name.rfind("weight") == tensor.name.size() - 6; // ends with 'weight'?

        // quantize only 2D tensors
        quantize &= (tensor.ne.size() == 2);
        quantize &= params->quantize_output_tensor || tensor.name != "lm_head.weight";
        quantize &= quantized_type != tensor.type;
    
        enum ggml_type new_type;
        void * new_data;
        size_t new_size;
        llama_buffer work;

        if (!quantize) {
            new_type = tensor.type;
            new_data = tensor.data;
            new_size = tensor.size;
            printf("(Not quantizing) size = %8.3f MB\n", tensor.size/1024.0/1024.0);
        } else {
            new_type = quantized_type;
#ifdef GGML_USE_K_QUANTS
            if (quantized_type == GGML_TYPE_Q2_K || quantized_type == GGML_TYPE_Q3_K || quantized_type == GGML_TYPE_Q4_K ||
                quantized_type == GGML_TYPE_Q5_K || quantized_type == GGML_TYPE_Q6_K) {
                int nx = tensor.ne.at(0);
                int ny = tensor.ne.at(0);
                if (nx % QK_K != 0 || ny % QK_K != 0) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "\n\n========================= Tensor sizes %d x %d are not divisible by %d\n",nx,ny,QK_K);
                    fprintf(stderr, "This is required to be able to use k-quants for now - use legacy quantizer instead (non K)!\n");
                    fprintf(stderr, "========================================================================================\n\n");
                    throw std::runtime_error("Unsupported tensor size encountered\n");
                }
            }
            // if (tensor.name == ".mlp.dense_") {
            //    new_type = GGML_TYPE_Q6_K;
            // } 
            // TODO falcon

#endif

            float * f32_data;
            size_t nelements = tensor.ne.at(0) * tensor.ne.at(1);
            llama_buffer f32_conv_buf;

            if (tensor.type == GGML_TYPE_F32) {
                f32_data = (float *) tensor.data;
            } else if (ggml_is_quantized(tensor.type) && !params->allow_requantize) {
                throw std::runtime_error(format("requantizing from type %s is disabled", ggml_type_name(tensor.type)));
            } else {
                llama_convert_tensor_internal(tensor, f32_conv_buf, nelements, nthread);
                f32_data = (float *) f32_conv_buf.addr;
            }

            printf("quantizing .. ");
            fflush(stdout);

            work.resize(nelements * 4); // upper bound on size
            new_data = work.addr;
            std::vector<int64_t> hist_cur(1 << 4, 0);

            int chunk_size = 32 * 512;
            const int nchunk = (nelements + chunk_size - 1)/chunk_size;
            const int nthread_use = nthread > 1 ? std::max(1, std::min(nthread, nchunk)) : 1;
            if (nthread_use < 2) {
                new_size = ggml_quantize_chunk(new_type, f32_data, new_data, 0, nelements, hist_cur.data());
            } else {
                size_t counter = 0;
                new_size = 0;
                auto compute = [&mutex, &counter, &hist_cur, &new_size, new_type, f32_data, new_data, nelements, chunk_size] () {
                    std::vector<int64_t> local_hist;
                    size_t local_size = 0;
                    while (true) {
                        std::unique_lock<std::mutex> lock(mutex);
                        size_t first = counter; counter += chunk_size;
                        if (first >= nelements) {
                            if (!local_hist.empty()) {
                                for (int j=0; j<int(local_hist.size()); ++j) {
                                    hist_cur[j] += local_hist[j];
                                }
                                new_size += local_size;
                            }
                            break;
                        }
                        lock.unlock();
                        size_t last = std::min(nelements, first + chunk_size);
                        if (local_hist.empty()) {
                            local_hist.resize(hist_cur.size(), 0);
                        }
                        local_size += ggml_quantize_chunk(new_type, f32_data, new_data, first, last - first, local_hist.data());
                    }
                };
                if ((int) workers.size() < nthread_use - 1) {
                    workers.resize(nthread_use - 1);
                }
                for (int it = 0; it < nthread_use - 1; ++it) {
                    workers[it] = std::thread(compute);
                }
                compute();
                for (int it = 0; it < nthread_use - 1; ++it) {
                    workers[it].join();
                }
            }

            printf("size = %8.2f MB -> %8.2f MB | hist: ", tensor.size/1024.0/1024.0, new_size/1024.0/1024.0);
            int64_t tot_count = 0;
            for (size_t i = 0; i < hist_cur.size(); i++) {
                hist_all[i] += hist_cur[i];
                tot_count += hist_cur[i];
            }

            if (tot_count > 0) {
                for (size_t i = 0; i < hist_cur.size(); i++) {
                    printf("%5.3f ", hist_cur[i] / float(nelements));
                }
            }
            printf("\n");
        }
        total_size_org += tensor.size;
        total_size_new += new_size;
        file_saver.write_tensor(tensor, new_type, new_data, new_size);
    }

    printf("%s: model size  = %8.2f MB\n", __func__, total_size_org/1024.0/1024.0);
    printf("%s: quant size  = %8.2f MB\n", __func__, total_size_new/1024.0/1024.0);

    {
        int64_t sum_all = 0;
        for (size_t i = 0; i < hist_all.size(); i++) {
            sum_all += hist_all[i];
        }

        if (sum_all > 0) {
            printf("%s: hist: ", __func__);
            for (size_t i = 0; i < hist_all.size(); i++) {
                printf("%5.3f ", hist_all[i] / float(sum_all));
            }
            printf("\n");
        }
    }
}

// set context memory buffers
void falcon_context_set_buffers(falcon_context *ctx, int n_batch, int n_ctx)
{
    FALCON_ASSERT(ctx->model.type != FALCON_UNKNOWN);
    ctx->buf_compute.resize(MEM_REQ_EVAL().at(ctx->model.type));
    ctx->buf_scratch[0].resize(MEM_REQ_SCRATCH0().at(ctx->model.type)+MEM_REQ_EVAL_BATCH(ctx->model.type,n_batch,n_ctx).first);
    ctx->buf_scratch[1].resize(MEM_REQ_SCRATCH1().at(ctx->model.type)+MEM_REQ_EVAL_BATCH(ctx->model.type,n_batch,n_ctx).second);
    // fprintf(stderr, "Buffers: compute %.2f MB, scratch0 %.2f MB, scratch1 %.2f MB\n", MEM_REQ_EVAL().at(ctx->model.type)/1024.0/1024.0, (MEM_REQ_SCRATCH0().at(ctx->model.type)+MEM_REQ_EVAL_BATCH(ctx->model.type,n_batch,n_ctx).first)/1024.0/1024.0, (MEM_REQ_SCRATCH1().at(ctx->model.type)+MEM_REQ_EVAL_BATCH(ctx->model.type,n_batch,n_ctx).second)/1024.0/1024.0);
}
// create a new context with KV cache - if model type is set falcon_context_set_buffers() is called as well
struct falcon_context * falcon_context_prepare(falcon_context_params params, falcon_model *model, std::string context_name, bool verbose)
{
    falcon_context * ctx = new falcon_context(*model, model->vocab); // ctx model/vocab only references to the globals
    ctx->context_name=context_name;
    if (params.seed < 0) {
        params.seed = time(NULL);
    }

    ctx->rng = std::mt19937(params.seed);
    ctx->logits_all = params.logits_all;

    ggml_type memory_type = params.f16_kv ? GGML_TYPE_F16 : GGML_TYPE_F32;
    ctx->t_start_us = ggml_time_us(); 

    if (!params.vocab_only)
    {
        // reserve memory for context buffers
        if (!kv_cache_init(ctx->model.hparams, ctx->model.kv_self, memory_type, ctx->model.hparams.n_ctx, params.n_gpu_layers)) {
            fprintf(stderr, "%s: kv_cache_init() failed for self-attention cache\n", __func__);
            llama_free(ctx);
            return nullptr;
        }

        
        const auto & hparams = ctx->model.hparams;

        // resized during inference
        if (params.logits_all) {
            ctx->logits.reserve(hparams.n_ctx*hparams.n_vocab);
        } else {
            ctx->logits.reserve(hparams.n_vocab);
        }

        if (params.embedding){
            ctx->embedding.resize(hparams.n_embd);
        }
        
        if (verbose && model->type != FALCON_UNKNOWN)
        {
            const size_t memory_size = ggml_nbytes(ctx->model.kv_self.k) + ggml_nbytes(ctx->model.kv_self.v);
            falcon_context_set_buffers(ctx, params.n_batch, params.n_ctx);
            fprintf(stderr, "%s: Context %s RAM buffers - key_val = %7.2f MB, Compute = %7.2f MB, Scratch 0 = %7.2f MB, Scratch 1 = %7.2f MB \n", __func__, context_name.c_str(), memory_size / 1024.0 / 1024.0, ctx->buf_compute.size /1024.0/1024.0, (ctx->buf_scratch[0].size)/1024.0/1024.0, (ctx->buf_scratch[1].size)/1024.0/1024.0);
        }

    }
    #ifdef GGML_USE_METAL
    if (params.n_gpu_layers > 0) {
        // this allocates all Metal resources and memory buffers
        ctx->ctx_metal = ggml_metal_init();

        void *data_ptr = NULL;
        size_t data_size = 0;
        if (params.use_mmap) {
            data_ptr = ctx->model.mapping->addr;
            data_size= ctx->model.mapping->size;
        } else {
            data_ptr = ggml_get_mem_buffer(ctx->model.ctx);
            data_size= ggml_get_mem_size(ctx->model.ctx);
        }

    #define LLAMA_METAL_CHECK_BUF(result)                                          \
    if (!(result)) {                                                           \
        fprintf(stderr, "%s: failed to add buffer\n", __func__);               \
        llama_free(ctx);                                                       \
        return NULL;                                                           \
    }

        LLAMA_METAL_CHECK_BUF(ggml_metal_add_buffer(ctx->ctx_metal, "data", data_ptr, data_size));
        LLAMA_METAL_CHECK_BUF(ggml_metal_add_buffer(ctx->ctx_metal, "eval", ctx->buf_compute.addr, ctx->buf_compute.size));

        LLAMA_METAL_CHECK_BUF(ggml_metal_add_buffer(ctx->ctx_metal, "kv",   ctx->model.kv_self.buf.addr, ctx->model.kv_self.buf.size));
        LLAMA_METAL_CHECK_BUF(ggml_metal_add_buffer(ctx->ctx_metal, "scr0", ctx->buf_scratch[0].addr,    ctx->buf_scratch[0].size));
        LLAMA_METAL_CHECK_BUF(ggml_metal_add_buffer(ctx->ctx_metal, "scr1", ctx->buf_scratch[1].addr,    ctx->buf_scratch[1].size));
    #undef LLAMA_METAL_CHECK_BUF
    }
    #endif

    return ctx;
}

struct falcon_model * falcon_get_falcon_model(falcon_context * ctx)
{
    return &ctx->model;
}

struct falcon_context * falcon_init_from_file(
                             const char * path_model,
            struct falcon_context_params   params) {
    ggml_time_init();

    
 

    unsigned cur_percentage = 0;
    if (params.progress_callback == NULL) {
        params.progress_callback_user_data = &cur_percentage; // not sure why this is so complicated ? I left it for now
        params.progress_callback = [](float progress, void * ctx, const char *status) {
            unsigned percentage = (unsigned) (100 * progress);
            unsigned * cur_percentage_p = (unsigned *) ctx;
            static const int bar_width = 50;
            bool completed = false;
            if (percentage >= 100) {
                completed = true;
                if (!strlen(status))
                status = "Completed";
            }

            if (percentage > *cur_percentage_p) {
                *cur_percentage_p = percentage;
                fprintf(stderr, "\r["); // using '\r' to overwrite the current line
                int progress_position = percentage * bar_width / 100;
                for (int i = 0; i < bar_width; ++i) {
                    if (i < progress_position) {
                        fprintf(stderr, "=");
                    } else if (i == progress_position) {
                        fprintf(stderr, ">");
                    } else {
                        fprintf(stderr, "-");
                    }
                }

                fprintf(stderr, "] %3u%%  %-30s", percentage, status);

                
                fflush(stderr);
                if (completed) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "\n");
                }
            }
        };
    }
    int64_t t_start_us = ggml_time_us();
    ggml_type memory_type = params.f16_kv ? GGML_TYPE_F16 : GGML_TYPE_F32;
    falcon_model *model = falcon_model_load(path_model, params.n_ctx, params.n_batch, params.n_gpu_layers,
                params.main_gpu, memory_type, params.use_mmap, params.use_mlock,
                params.vocab_only, params.progress_callback, params.progress_callback_user_data);
    if (model == nullptr) {
        fprintf(stderr, "%s: failed to load model\n", __func__);
        // llama_free(f_ctx);
        return nullptr;
    }
    // model_load_internal() may change this if VRAM runs out
    params.n_gpu_layers = model->n_gpu_layers; 
    params.i_gpu_start = model->i_gpu_start; // first layer that's GPU accelerated
    params.i_gpu_last = model->i_gpu_last; // last layer that's GPU accelerated
    falcon_context * f_ctx = falcon_context_prepare(params, model, "falcon_main",true);
    f_ctx->t_load_us = ggml_time_us() - t_start_us;
    f_ctx->t_start_us = t_start_us;
    //falcon_context_set_buffers(f_ctx,params.n_batch,params.n_ctx);
    //const size_t memory_size = ggml_nbytes(model->kv_self.k) + ggml_nbytes(model->kv_self.v);
    //fprintf(stderr, "%s: RAM buffers - key_val = %7.2f MB, Compute = %7.2f MB, Scratch 0 = %7.2f MB, Scratch 1 = %7.2f MB \n", __func__, memory_size / 1024.0 / 1024.0, f_ctx->buf_compute.size /1024.0/1024.0, (f_ctx->buf_scratch[0].size)/1024.0/1024.0, (f_ctx->buf_scratch[1].size)/1024.0/1024.0);

    return f_ctx;
}

void llama_free(struct falcon_context * f_ctx) {
    delete f_ctx;
}

int falcon_model_quantize(
        const char * fname_inp,
        const char * fname_out,
        const llama_model_quantize_params *params) {
    try {
        falcon_model_quantize_internal(fname_inp, fname_out, params);
        return 0;
    } catch (const std::exception & err) {
        fprintf(stderr, "%s: failed to quantize: %s\n", __func__, err.what());
        return 1;
    }
}

int llama_apply_lora_from_file_internal(struct falcon_context * ctx, const char * path_lora, const char * path_base_model, int n_threads) {
    fprintf(stderr, "%s: applying lora adapter from '%s' - please wait ...\n", __func__, path_lora);

    auto & model = ctx->model;

    const int64_t t_start_lora_us = ggml_time_us();

    auto fin = std::ifstream(path_lora, std::ios::binary);
    if (!fin) {
        fprintf(stderr, "%s: failed to open '%s'\n", __func__, path_lora);
        return 1;
    }

    // verify magic and version
    {
        uint32_t magic;
        fin.read((char *) &magic, sizeof(magic));
        if (magic != LLAMA_FILE_MAGIC_GGLA) {
            fprintf(stderr, "%s: bad file magic\n", __func__);
            return 1;
        }
        uint32_t format_version;
        fin.read((char *) &format_version, sizeof(format_version));

        if (format_version != 1) {
            fprintf(stderr, "%s: unsupported file version\n", __func__ );
            return 1;
        }
    }

    int32_t lora_r;
    int32_t lora_alpha;
    fin.read((char *) &lora_r, sizeof(lora_r));
    fin.read((char *) &lora_alpha, sizeof(lora_alpha));
    float scaling = (float)lora_alpha / (float)lora_r;

    fprintf(stderr, "%s: r = %d, alpha = %d, scaling = %.2f\n", __func__, lora_r, lora_alpha, scaling);


    // create a temporary ggml context to store the lora tensors
    // todo: calculate size from biggest possible tensor
    std::vector<uint8_t> lora_buf(1024ull * 1024ull * 1024ull);
    struct ggml_init_params params;
    params.mem_size   = lora_buf.size();
    params.mem_buffer = lora_buf.data();
    params.no_alloc   = false;

    ggml_context * lora_ctx = ggml_init(params);
    std::unordered_map<std::string, struct ggml_tensor *> lora_tensors;

    // create a name -> tensor map of the model to accelerate lookups
    std::unordered_map<std::string, struct ggml_tensor*> model_tensors;
    for (auto & kv: model.tensors_by_name) {
        model_tensors.insert(kv);
    }


    // load base model
    std::unique_ptr<llama_model_loader> model_loader;
    ggml_context * base_ctx = NULL;
    llama_buffer base_buf;
    if (path_base_model) {
        fprintf(stderr, "%s: loading base model from '%s'\n", __func__, path_base_model);
        model_loader.reset(new llama_model_loader(path_base_model, /*use_mmap*/ true, /*vocab_only*/ false));

        size_t ctx_size;
        size_t mmapped_size;
        model_loader->calc_sizes(&ctx_size, &mmapped_size);
        base_buf.resize(ctx_size);

        ggml_init_params base_params;
        base_params.mem_size   = base_buf.size;
        base_params.mem_buffer = base_buf.addr;
        base_params.no_alloc   = model_loader->use_mmap;

        base_ctx = ggml_init(base_params);

        model_loader->ggml_ctx = base_ctx;

        // maybe this should in llama_model_loader
        if (model_loader->use_mmap) {
            model_loader->mapping.reset(new llama_mmap(&model_loader->file_loaders.at(0)->file, /* prefetch */ 0));
        }
    }

    // read tensors and apply
    bool warned = false;
    int n_tensors = 0;
    while (true) {
        int32_t n_dims;
        int32_t length;
        int32_t ftype;

        fin.read(reinterpret_cast<char *>(&n_dims), sizeof(n_dims));
        fin.read(reinterpret_cast<char *>(&length), sizeof(length));
        fin.read(reinterpret_cast<char *>(&ftype),  sizeof(ftype));
        if (fin.eof()) {
            break;
        }

        int32_t ne[2] = { 1, 1 };
        for (int i = 0; i < n_dims; ++i) {
            fin.read(reinterpret_cast<char *>(&ne[i]), sizeof(ne[i]));
        }

        std::string name;
        {
            char buf[1024];
            fin.read(buf, length);
            name = std::string(buf, length);
        }

        // check for lora suffix and get the type of tensor
        const std::string lora_suffix = ".lora";
        size_t pos = name.rfind(lora_suffix);
        if (pos == std::string::npos) {
            fprintf(stderr, "%s: error: '%s' is not a lora tensor\n", __func__, name.c_str());
            return 1;
        }

        std::string lora_type = name.substr(pos + lora_suffix.length());
        std::string base_name = name;
        base_name.erase(pos);
        // fprintf(stderr, "%s: %s => %s (lora type %s) ", __func__, name.c_str(),base_name.c_str(), lora_type.c_str());

        if (model_tensors.find(base_name) == model_tensors.end()) {
            fprintf(stderr, "%s: unknown tensor '%s' in lora adapter\n", __func__, name.data());
            return 1;
        }

        // create ggml tensor
        ggml_type wtype;
        switch (ftype) {
            case 0: wtype = GGML_TYPE_F32;  break;
            case 1: wtype = GGML_TYPE_F16;  break;
            default:
                    {
                        fprintf(stderr, "%s: invalid tensor data type '%d'\n",
                                __func__, ftype);
                        return false;
                    }
        }
        ggml_tensor* lora_tensor;
        if (n_dims == 2) {
            lora_tensor = ggml_new_tensor_2d(lora_ctx, wtype, ne[0], ne[1]);
        }
        else {
            fprintf(stderr, "%s: unsupported tensor dimension %d\n", __func__, n_dims);
            return 1;
        }

        // load tensor data
        size_t offset = fin.tellg();
        size_t tensor_data_size = ggml_nbytes(lora_tensor);
        offset = (offset + 31) & -32;
        fin.seekg(offset);
        fin.read((char*)lora_tensor->data, tensor_data_size);

        lora_tensors[name] = lora_tensor;

        // check if we have both A and B tensors and apply
        if (lora_tensors.find(base_name + ".loraA") != lora_tensors.end() &&
            lora_tensors.find(base_name + ".loraB") != lora_tensors.end()) {

            ggml_tensor * dest_t = model_tensors[base_name];
            ggml_tensor * base_t;
            if (model_loader) {
                // load from base model
                if (model_loader->tensors_map.name_to_idx.find(base_name) == model_loader->tensors_map.name_to_idx.end()) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "%s: error: tensor '%s' not found in base model\n", __func__, base_name.c_str());
                    return 1;
                }
                size_t idx = model_loader->tensors_map.name_to_idx[base_name];
                falcon_load_tensor & lt = model_loader->tensors_map.tensors[idx];
                base_t = model_loader->get_tensor(base_name, { (uint32_t)dest_t->ne[0], (uint32_t)dest_t->ne[1] }, GGML_BACKEND_CPU);
                lt.data = (uint8_t *) lt.ggml_tensor->data;
                model_loader->load_data_for(lt);
                lt.ggml_tensor->data = lt.data;
            }
            else {
                base_t = dest_t;
            }

            if (ggml_is_quantized(base_t->type)) {
                if (!warned) {
                    fprintf(stderr, "%s: warning: using a lora adapter with a quantized model may result in poor quality, "
                                    "use a f16 or f32 base model with --lora-base\n", __func__);
                    warned = true;
                }
            }

            ggml_tensor * loraA = lora_tensors[base_name + ".loraA"];
            ggml_tensor * loraB = lora_tensors[base_name + ".loraB"];

            if (base_t->ne[0] != loraA->ne[1] || base_t->ne[1] != loraB->ne[1]) {
                fprintf(stderr, "%s: incompatible tensor dimensions (%" PRId64 " and %" PRId64 ");"
                               " are you sure that this adapter is for this model?\n", __func__, base_t->ne[0], loraA->ne[1]);
                return 1;
            }

            // w = w + BA*s
            ggml_tensor * BA = ggml_mul_mat(lora_ctx, loraA, loraB);

            if (scaling != 1.0f) {
                ggml_tensor * scale_tensor = ggml_new_f32(lora_ctx, scaling);
                BA = ggml_scale_inplace(lora_ctx, BA, scale_tensor);
            }

            ggml_tensor * r;
            if (base_t == dest_t) {
                r = ggml_add_inplace(lora_ctx, dest_t, BA);
            }
            else {
                r = ggml_add(lora_ctx, base_t, BA);
                r = ggml_cpy(lora_ctx, r, dest_t);
            }

            struct ggml_cgraph gf = ggml_build_forward(r);
            gf.n_threads = n_threads;
            ggml_graph_compute(lora_ctx, &gf);

            // we won't need these tensors again, reset the context to save memory
            ggml_free(lora_ctx);
            lora_ctx = ggml_init(params);
            lora_tensors.clear();

            n_tensors++;
            if (n_tensors % 4 == 0) {
                fprintf(stderr, ".");
            }
        }
    }

    // TODO: this should be in a destructor, it will leak on failure
    ggml_free(lora_ctx);
    if (base_ctx) {
        ggml_free(base_ctx);
    }

    const int64_t t_lora_us = ggml_time_us() - t_start_lora_us;
    fprintf(stderr, " done (%.2f ms)\n", t_lora_us / 1000.0);

    return 0;
}

int llama_apply_lora_from_file(struct falcon_context * ctx, const char * path_lora, const char * path_base_model, int n_threads) {
    try {
        return llama_apply_lora_from_file_internal(ctx, path_lora, path_base_model, n_threads);
    } catch (const std::exception & err) {
        fprintf(stderr, "%s: failed to apply lora adapter: %s\n", __func__, err.what());
        return 1;
    }
}

int llama_get_kv_cache_token_count(const struct falcon_context * ctx) {
    return ctx->model.kv_self.n;
}

#define LLAMA_MAX_RNG_STATE (64*1024)

void llama_set_rng_seed(struct falcon_context * ctx, int seed) {
    if (seed < 0) {
        seed = time(NULL);
    }
    ctx->rng.seed(seed);
}

// Returns the *maximum* size of the state
size_t llama_get_state_size(const struct falcon_context * ctx) {
    // we don't know size of rng until we actually serialize it. so reserve more than enough memory for its serialized state.
    // for reference, std::mt19937(1337) serializes to 6701 bytes.
    const size_t s_rng_size        = sizeof(size_t);
    const size_t s_rng             = LLAMA_MAX_RNG_STATE;
    const size_t s_logits_capacity = sizeof(size_t);
    const size_t s_logits_size     = sizeof(size_t);
    const size_t s_logits          = ctx->logits.capacity() * sizeof(float);
    const size_t s_embedding_size  = sizeof(size_t);
    const size_t s_embedding       = ctx->embedding.size() * sizeof(float);
    const size_t s_kv_size         = sizeof(size_t);
    const size_t s_kv_ntok         = sizeof(int);
    const size_t s_kv              = ctx->model.kv_self.buf.size;

    const size_t s_total = (
        + s_rng_size
        + s_rng
        + s_logits_capacity
        + s_logits_size
        + s_logits
        + s_embedding_size
        + s_embedding
        + s_kv_size
        + s_kv_ntok
        + s_kv
    );

    return s_total;
}

// Copies the state to the specified destination address
size_t falcon_copy_state_data(struct falcon_context * ctx, uint8_t * dst) {
    uint8_t * out = dst;

    // copy rng
    {
        std::stringstream rng_ss;
        rng_ss << ctx->rng;

        const size_t rng_size = rng_ss.str().size();
        char rng_buf[LLAMA_MAX_RNG_STATE];

        memset(&rng_buf[0], 0, LLAMA_MAX_RNG_STATE);
        memcpy(&rng_buf[0], rng_ss.str().data(), rng_ss.str().size());

        memcpy(out, &rng_size,   sizeof(rng_size));    out += sizeof(rng_size);
        memcpy(out, &rng_buf[0], LLAMA_MAX_RNG_STATE); out += LLAMA_MAX_RNG_STATE;
    }

    // copy logits
    {
        const size_t logits_cap  = ctx->logits.capacity();
        const size_t logits_size = ctx->logits.size();

        memcpy(out, &logits_cap,  sizeof(logits_cap));  out += sizeof(logits_cap);
        memcpy(out, &logits_size, sizeof(logits_size)); out += sizeof(logits_size);

        if (logits_size) {
            memcpy(out, ctx->logits.data(), logits_size * sizeof(float));
        }

        out += logits_cap * sizeof(float);
    }

    // copy embeddings
    {
        const size_t embedding_size = ctx->embedding.size();

        memcpy(out, &embedding_size, sizeof(embedding_size)); out += sizeof(embedding_size);

        if (embedding_size) {
            memcpy(out, ctx->embedding.data(), embedding_size * sizeof(float));
            out += embedding_size * sizeof(float);
        }
    }

    // copy kv cache
    {
        const auto & kv_self = ctx->model.kv_self;
        const auto & hparams = ctx->model.hparams;
        const int    n_layer = hparams.n_layer;
        const int    n_embd  = hparams.n_embd;
        const int    n_ctx   = hparams.n_ctx;
        const int    n_head_kv = hparams.n_head_kv;
        const int    head_dim = hparams.n_embd / hparams.n_head;

        const size_t kv_size = kv_self.buf.size;
        const int    kv_ntok = llama_get_kv_cache_token_count(ctx);

        memcpy(out, &kv_size, sizeof(kv_size)); out += sizeof(kv_size);
        memcpy(out, &kv_ntok, sizeof(kv_ntok)); out += sizeof(kv_ntok);

        if (kv_size) {
            const size_t elt_size = ggml_element_size(kv_self.k);

            ggml_context * cpy_ctx = ggml_init({ 4096, NULL, /* no_alloc */ true });
            ggml_cgraph gf{};
            gf.n_threads = 1;

            // ggml_tensor * kout3d = ggml_new_tensor_3d(cpy_ctx, kv_self.k->type, n_embd, kv_ntok, n_layer);
            ggml_tensor * kout3d = ggml_new_tensor_3d(cpy_ctx, kv_self.k->type, n_head_kv*head_dim, kv_ntok, n_layer);
            kout3d->data = out;
            out += ggml_nbytes(kout3d);

            // ggml_tensor * vout3d = ggml_new_tensor_3d(cpy_ctx, kv_self.v->type, kv_ntok, n_embd, n_layer);
            #ifdef FALCON_NO_KV_UPGRADE
            ggml_tensor * vout3d = ggml_new_tensor_3d(cpy_ctx, kv_self.v->type, n_head_kv*head_dim, kv_ntok, n_layer);
            #else
            ggml_tensor * vout3d = ggml_new_tensor_3d(cpy_ctx, kv_self.v->type, kv_ntok, n_head_kv*head_dim, n_layer);
            #endif
            vout3d->data = out;
            out += ggml_nbytes(vout3d);

            /*ggml_tensor * k3d = ggml_view_3d(cpy_ctx, kv_self.k,
                n_embd, kv_ntok, n_layer,
                elt_size*n_embd, elt_size*n_embd*n_ctx, 0);

            ggml_tensor * v3d = ggml_view_3d(cpy_ctx, kv_self.v,
                kv_ntok, n_embd, n_layer,
                elt_size*n_ctx, elt_size*n_ctx*n_embd, 0);*/
            // todo: wouldn't this all be more consistent as 1d ?
            ggml_tensor * k3d = ggml_view_3d(cpy_ctx, kv_self.k,
                n_head_kv*head_dim, kv_ntok, n_layer,
                elt_size*n_head_kv*head_dim, elt_size*n_head_kv*head_dim*n_ctx, 0);
            #ifdef FALCON_NO_KV_UPGRADE
            ggml_tensor * v3d = ggml_view_3d(cpy_ctx, kv_self.v,
                n_head_kv*head_dim, kv_ntok, n_layer,
                elt_size*n_head_kv*head_dim, elt_size*n_head_kv*head_dim*n_ctx, 0);
            #else
             ggml_tensor* v3d = ggml_view_3d( cpy_ctx, (kv_self.v_current == kv_self.V_A)?kv_self.v_a:kv_self.v_b,
                    kv_ntok, n_head_kv*head_dim, n_layer,
                    /*nb1*/elt_size*kv_ntok,
                    /*nb2*/n_ctx * head_dim*n_head_kv *elt_size,
                    /*off*/0);

            #endif

            ggml_build_forward_expand(&gf, ggml_cpy(cpy_ctx, k3d, kout3d));
            ggml_build_forward_expand(&gf, ggml_cpy(cpy_ctx, v3d, vout3d));
            ggml_graph_compute(cpy_ctx, &gf);

            ggml_free(cpy_ctx);
        }
    }

    const size_t written  = out - dst;
    const size_t max_size = llama_get_state_size(ctx);

    FALCON_ASSERT(written <= max_size);

    return written;
}

// Sets (restores) the state reading from the specified source address
size_t falcon_set_state_data(struct falcon_context * ctx, uint8_t * src) {
    uint8_t * inp = src;

    // set rng
    {
        size_t rng_size;
        char   rng_buf[LLAMA_MAX_RNG_STATE];

        memcpy(&rng_size,   inp, sizeof(rng_size));    inp += sizeof(rng_size);
        memcpy(&rng_buf[0], inp, LLAMA_MAX_RNG_STATE); inp += LLAMA_MAX_RNG_STATE;

        std::stringstream rng_ss;
        rng_ss.str(std::string(&rng_buf[0], rng_size));
        rng_ss >> ctx->rng;

        FALCON_ASSERT(rng_ss.fail() == false);
    }

    // set logits
    {
        size_t logits_cap;
        size_t logits_size;

        memcpy(&logits_cap,  inp, sizeof(logits_cap));  inp += sizeof(logits_cap);
        memcpy(&logits_size, inp, sizeof(logits_size)); inp += sizeof(logits_size);

        FALCON_ASSERT(ctx->logits.capacity() == logits_cap);

        if (logits_size) {
            ctx->logits.resize(logits_size);
            memcpy(ctx->logits.data(), inp, logits_size * sizeof(float));
        }

        inp += logits_cap * sizeof(float);
    }

    // set embeddings
    {
        size_t embedding_size;

        memcpy(&embedding_size, inp, sizeof(embedding_size)); inp += sizeof(embedding_size);

        FALCON_ASSERT(ctx->embedding.capacity() == embedding_size);

        if (embedding_size) {
            memcpy(ctx->embedding.data(), inp, embedding_size * sizeof(float));
            inp += embedding_size * sizeof(float);
        }
    }

    // set/restore kv cache
    {
        const auto & kv_self = ctx->model.kv_self;
        const auto & hparams = ctx->model.hparams;
        const int    n_layer = hparams.n_layer;
        const int    n_embd  = hparams.n_embd;
        const int    n_ctx   = hparams.n_ctx;
        const int    n_head_kv = hparams.n_head_kv;
        const int    head_dim = hparams.n_embd / hparams.n_head;

        size_t kv_size;
        int kv_ntok;

        memcpy(&kv_size, inp, sizeof(kv_size)); inp += sizeof(kv_size);
        memcpy(&kv_ntok, inp, sizeof(kv_ntok)); inp += sizeof(kv_ntok);

        if (kv_size) {
            FALCON_ASSERT(kv_self.buf.size == kv_size);

            const size_t elt_size = ggml_element_size(kv_self.k);

            ggml_context * cpy_ctx = ggml_init({ 4096, NULL, /* no_alloc */ true });
            ggml_cgraph gf{};
            gf.n_threads = 1;
            // ggml_tensor * kin3d = ggml_new_tensor_3d(cpy_ctx, kv_self.k->type, n_embd, kv_ntok, n_layer);
            ggml_tensor * kin3d = ggml_new_tensor_3d(cpy_ctx, kv_self.k->type, n_head_kv*head_dim, kv_ntok, n_layer);
            kin3d->data = (void *) inp;
            inp += ggml_nbytes(kin3d);

            // ggml_tensor * vin3d = ggml_new_tensor_3d(cpy_ctx, kv_self.v->type, kv_ntok, n_embd, n_layer);
            #ifdef FALCON_NO_KV_UPGRADE
            ggml_tensor * vin3d = ggml_new_tensor_3d(cpy_ctx, kv_self.v->type, n_head_kv*head_dim, kv_ntok, n_layer);
            #else
            ggml_tensor * vin3d = ggml_new_tensor_3d(cpy_ctx, kv_self.v->type, kv_ntok, n_head_kv*head_dim, n_layer);
            #endif
            vin3d->data = (void *) inp;
            inp += ggml_nbytes(vin3d);

            /*ggml_tensor * k3d = ggml_view_3d(cpy_ctx, kv_self.k,
                n_embd, kv_ntok, n_layer,
                elt_size*n_embd, elt_size*n_embd*n_ctx, 0);

            ggml_tensor * v3d = ggml_view_3d(cpy_ctx, kv_self.v,
                kv_ntok, n_embd, n_layer,
                elt_size*n_ctx, elt_size*n_ctx*n_embd, 0);*/
            ggml_tensor * k3d = ggml_view_3d(cpy_ctx, kv_self.k,
                n_head_kv*head_dim, kv_ntok, n_layer,
                elt_size*n_head_kv*head_dim, elt_size*n_head_kv*head_dim*n_ctx, 0);

            #ifdef FALCON_NO_KV_UPGRADE
            ggml_tensor * v3d = ggml_view_3d(cpy_ctx, kv_self.v,
                n_head_kv*head_dim, kv_ntok, n_layer,
                elt_size*n_head_kv*head_dim, elt_size*n_head_kv*head_dim*n_ctx, 0);
            #else
             ggml_tensor* v3d = ggml_view_3d( cpy_ctx, (kv_self.v_current == kv_self.V_A)?kv_self.v_a:kv_self.v_b,
                    kv_ntok, n_head_kv*head_dim, n_layer,
                    /*nb1*/elt_size*kv_ntok,
                    /*nb2*/n_ctx * head_dim*n_head_kv *elt_size,
                    /*off*/0);
            #endif

            ggml_build_forward_expand(&gf, ggml_cpy(cpy_ctx, kin3d, k3d));
            ggml_build_forward_expand(&gf, ggml_cpy(cpy_ctx, vin3d, v3d));
            ggml_graph_compute(cpy_ctx, &gf);

            ggml_free(cpy_ctx);
        }

        ctx->model.kv_self.n = kv_ntok;
    }

    const size_t nread    = inp - src;
    const size_t max_size = llama_get_state_size(ctx);

    FALCON_ASSERT(nread <= max_size);

    return nread;
}

static bool llama_load_session_file_internal(struct falcon_context * ctx, const char * path_session, falcon_token * tokens_out, size_t n_token_capacity, size_t * n_token_count_out) {
    llama_file file(path_session, "rb");

    // sanity checks
    {
        const uint32_t magic   = file.read_u32();
        const uint32_t version = file.read_u32();

        if (magic != LLAMA_SESSION_MAGIC || version != LLAMA_SESSION_VERSION) {
            fprintf(stderr, "%s : unknown (magic, version) for session file: %08x, %08x\n", __func__, magic, version);
            return false;
        }

        falcon_hparams session_hparams;
        file.read_raw(&session_hparams, sizeof(falcon_hparams));

        if (session_hparams != ctx->model.hparams) {
            fprintf(stderr, "%s : model hparams didn't match from session file!\n", __func__);
            return false;
        }
    }

    // load the prompt
    {
        const uint32_t n_token_count = file.read_u32();

        if (n_token_count > n_token_capacity) {
            fprintf(stderr, "%s : token count in session file exceeded capacity! %u > %zu\n", __func__, n_token_count, n_token_capacity);
            return false;
        }

        file.read_raw(tokens_out, sizeof(falcon_token) * n_token_count);
        *n_token_count_out = n_token_count;
    }

    // restore the context state
    {
        const size_t n_state_size_cur = file.size - file.tell();
        const size_t n_state_size_max = llama_get_state_size(ctx);

        if (n_state_size_cur > n_state_size_max) {
            fprintf(stderr, "%s : the state size in session file is too big! max %zu, got %zu\n", __func__, n_state_size_max, n_state_size_cur);
            return false;
        }

        std::vector<uint8_t> state_data(n_state_size_max);
        file.read_raw(state_data.data(), n_state_size_cur);

        falcon_set_state_data(ctx, state_data.data());
    }

    return true;
}

bool llama_load_session_file(struct falcon_context * ctx, const char * path_session, falcon_token * tokens_out, size_t n_token_capacity, size_t * n_token_count_out) {
    try {
        return llama_load_session_file_internal(ctx, path_session, tokens_out, n_token_capacity, n_token_count_out);
    } catch (const std::exception & err) {
        fprintf(stderr, "error loading session file: %s\n", err.what());
        return false;
    }
}

bool llama_save_session_file(struct falcon_context * ctx, const char * path_session, const falcon_token * tokens, size_t n_token_count) {
    llama_file file(path_session, "wb");

    file.write_u32(LLAMA_SESSION_MAGIC);
    file.write_u32(LLAMA_SESSION_VERSION);

    file.write_raw(&ctx->model.hparams, sizeof(falcon_hparams));

    // save the prompt
    file.write_u32((uint32_t) n_token_count);
    file.write_raw(tokens, sizeof(falcon_token) * n_token_count);

    // save the context state
    {
        const size_t n_state_size_max = llama_get_state_size(ctx);

        std::vector<uint8_t> state_data(n_state_size_max);
        const size_t n_state_size_cur = falcon_copy_state_data(ctx, state_data.data());

        file.write_raw(state_data.data(), n_state_size_cur);
    }

    return true;
}

int falcon_eval(
        struct falcon_context * ctx,
           const falcon_token * tokens,
                         falcon_evaluation_config &configuration) {
    //   fprintf(stderr, "falcon_eval: n_tokens=%d, n_past=%d, n_threads=%d\n", configuration.n_tokens, configuration.n_past, configuration.n_threads);
    // fprintf(stderr, "n_ctx=%d, n_embd=%d, n_head=%d, n_layer=%d, n_vocab=%d\n", ctx->model.hparams.n_ctx, ctx->model.hparams.n_embd, ctx->model.hparams.n_head, ctx->model.hparams.n_layer, ctx->model.hparams.n_vocab);
    FALCON_ASSERT(ctx->model.hparams.n_ctx >= (configuration.n_past+configuration.n_tokens)); // kv buffer overflow
    #if defined(GGML_USE_CUBLAS)
    static int no_purge_counter=0; // once the system is stable for 3 iterations, we stop testing
    if (no_purge_counter < 3 || configuration.n_past%50==0) {
        int purges=0;
        const GPUStatus *status = ggml_cuda_get_system_gpu_status();
        for (int i = 0; i < status->num_devices; i++) {
            purges += ggml_cuda_pool_purge_buffers_with_access_count(1,i);
            ggml_cuda_pool_reset_all_counters(i);
        }
        if (!purges && configuration.n_tokens == 1) 
            no_purge_counter++;
        else
            no_purge_counter=0;
    }
    #endif

    if (!falcon_eval_internal(*ctx, tokens, configuration)) {
        fprintf(stderr, "%s: failed to eval\n", __func__);
        return 1;
    }
    //ggml_cuda_update_gpu_status(-1); ggml_cuda_print_gpu_status(ggml_cuda_get_system_gpu_status(),true);
    if (!ctx->has_evaluated_once) {
        ctx->t_load_us = ggml_time_us() - ctx->t_start_us;
        ctx->has_evaluated_once = true;
    }

    return 0;
}



int falcon_eval_export(struct falcon_context * ctx, const char * fname) {
    const int n_batch = 1;
    const int n_ctx   = 512 - n_batch;

    const std::vector<falcon_token> tmp(n_batch, falcon_token_bos());
    falcon_evaluation_config configuration;
    configuration.n_past = n_ctx;
    configuration.n_tokens = tmp.size();
    configuration.n_threads = 1;
    configuration.cgraph_fname = fname;
    configuration.debug_timings=0;
    if (!falcon_eval_internal(*ctx, tmp.data(), configuration)) {
        fprintf(stderr, "%s: failed to eval\n", __func__);
        return 1;
    }

    return 0;
}

int falcon_tokenize(
        struct falcon_context * ctx,
                  const char * text,
                 falcon_token * tokens,
                         int   n_max_tokens,
                        bool   add_bos) {
    auto res = falcon_tokenize(ctx->vocab, text, add_bos, true);

    if (n_max_tokens < (int) res.size()) {
        fprintf(stderr, "%s: too many tokens: %d < %zu\n", __func__, n_max_tokens, res.size());
        return -((int) res.size());
    }

    for (size_t i = 0; i < res.size(); i++) {
        tokens[i] = res[i];
    }

    return res.size();
}

int falcon_n_vocab(const struct falcon_context * ctx) {
    return ctx->vocab.id_to_token.size();
}

int falcon_n_ctx(const struct falcon_context * ctx) {
    return ctx->model.hparams.n_ctx;
}

int falcon_n_embd(const struct falcon_context * ctx) {
    return ctx->model.hparams.n_embd;
}

int falcon_get_vocab(
        const struct falcon_context * ctx,
        const char * * strings,
        float  * scores,
        int capacity) {
    int n = std::min(capacity, (int) ctx->vocab.id_to_token.size());
    for (int i = 0; i<n; ++i) {
        strings[i] = ctx->vocab.id_to_token[i].tok.c_str();
        scores[i]  = ctx->vocab.id_to_token[i].score;
    }
    return n;
}

float * falcon_get_logits(struct falcon_context * ctx) {
    return ctx->logits.data();
}

float * falcon_get_embeddings(struct falcon_context * ctx) {
    return ctx->embedding.data();
}

const char * falcon_token_to_str(const struct falcon_context * ctx, falcon_token token) {
    if (token >= falcon_n_vocab(ctx)) {
        return nullptr;
    }

    return ctx->vocab.id_to_token[token].tok.c_str();
}

falcon_token falcon_token_bos() {
    return 11;
}

falcon_token falcon_token_eos() {
    return 11;
}

falcon_token falcon_token_nl() {
    return 193;
}

falcon_token falcon_token_cr() {
    return 195;
}

void falcon_print_timings(struct falcon_context * ctx) {
    const int64_t t_end_us = ggml_time_us();

    const int32_t n_sample = std::max(1, ctx->n_sample);
    const int32_t n_eval   = std::max(1, ctx->n_eval);
    const int32_t n_p_eval = std::max(1, ctx->n_p_eval);

    fprintf(stderr, "\n");
    fprintf(stderr, "%s:        load time = %8.2f ms\n", __func__, ctx->t_load_us / 1000.0);
    fprintf(stderr, "%s:      sample time = %8.2f ms / %5d runs   (%8.2f ms per token, %8.2f tokens per second)\n", __func__, 1e-3 * ctx->t_sample_us, n_sample, 1e-3 * ctx->t_sample_us / n_sample, 1e6 / ctx->t_sample_us * n_sample);
    if (ctx->n_p_eval > 1)
        fprintf(stderr, "%s: batch eval time = %8.2f ms / %5d tokens (%8.2f ms per token, %8.2f tokens per second)\n", __func__, 1e-3 * ctx->t_p_eval_us, n_p_eval, 1e-3 * ctx->t_p_eval_us / n_p_eval, 1e6 / ctx->t_p_eval_us * n_p_eval);
    fprintf(stderr, "%s:        eval time = %8.2f ms / %5d runs   (%8.2f ms per token, %8.2f tokens per second)\n", __func__, 1e-3 * ctx->t_eval_us, n_eval, 1e-3 * ctx->t_eval_us / n_eval, 1e6 / ctx->t_eval_us * n_eval);
    fprintf(stderr, "%s:       total time = %8.2f ms\n", __func__, (t_end_us - ctx->t_start_us) / 1000.0);
}

void llama_reset_timings(struct falcon_context * ctx) {
    ctx->t_start_us = ggml_time_us();
    ctx->t_sample_us = ctx->n_sample = 0;
    ctx->t_eval_us   = ctx->n_eval   = 0;
    ctx->t_p_eval_us = ctx->n_p_eval = 0;
}

const char * falcon_print_system_info(int n_threads, int n_cores) {
    static std::string s;

    s  = "+------------+-----+------+--------+-------------+-------------+-----+------+---------+------+---------+------+------+------+-----+\n";
    s += "| Syst. Info | AVX | AVX2 | AVX512 | AVX512_VBMI | AVX512_VNNI | FMA | NEON | ARM_FMA | F16C | FP16_VA | SIMD | BLAS | SSE3 | VSX |\n";
    s += "+------------+-----+------+--------+-------------+-------------+-----+------+---------+------+---------+------+------+------+-----+\n";
    //s += "|              | ";
    // instead we write threads: x/x (we have 14 chars, we need to use a formatstring to keep length):
    char buf[20];
    snprintf(buf, sizeof(buf), "| %2d/%2d thrd | ", n_threads, n_cores);
    s += buf;
    s += std::to_string(ggml_cpu_has_avx()) + "   | ";
    s += std::to_string(ggml_cpu_has_avx2()) + "    | ";
    s += std::to_string(ggml_cpu_has_avx512()) + "      | ";
    s += std::to_string(ggml_cpu_has_avx512_vbmi()) + "           | ";
    s += std::to_string(ggml_cpu_has_avx512_vnni()) + "           | ";
    s += std::to_string(ggml_cpu_has_fma()) + "   | ";
    s += std::to_string(ggml_cpu_has_neon()) + "    | ";
    s += std::to_string(ggml_cpu_has_arm_fma()) + "       | ";
    s += std::to_string(ggml_cpu_has_f16c()) + "    | ";
    s += std::to_string(ggml_cpu_has_fp16_va()) + "       | ";
    s += std::to_string(ggml_cpu_has_wasm_simd()) + "    | ";
    s += std::to_string(ggml_cpu_has_blas()) + "    | ";
    s += std::to_string(ggml_cpu_has_sse3()) + "    | ";
    s += std::to_string(ggml_cpu_has_vsx()) + "   |\n";
    s += "+------------+-----+------+--------+-------------+-------------+-----+------+---------+------+---------+------+------+------+-----+\n";

    return s.c_str();
}
// For internal test use
std::vector<std::pair<std::string, struct ggml_tensor *>>& llama_internal_get_tensor_map(struct falcon_context * ctx) {
    return ctx->model.tensors_by_name;
}