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This file defines several terms used by the Swift compiler and standard library source code, tests, and commit messages. See also the LLVM lexicon.
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.. glossary::
abstraction pattern
The unsubstituted generic type of a property or function parameter, which
sets constraints on its representation in memory. For example, given the
following definitions::
struct Foo<T> {
var value: T
// Foo.value has abstraction pattern <T> T
}
struct Bar<T, U> {
var value: (T) -> U
// Bar.value has abstraction pattern <T, U> (T) -> U
}
struct Bas {
var value: (Int) -> String
// Bas.value has abstraction pattern (Int) -> String
}
let transform: (Int) -> String = { "\($0)" }
let foo = Foo<(Int) -> String>(value: transform)
let bar = Bar<Int, String>(value: transform)
let bas = Bas(value: transform)
although ``foo.value``, ``bar.value``, and ``bas.value`` all have the same
function type ``(Int) -> String``, they have different *abstraction
patterns*. Because a value of type ``Foo`` or ``Bar`` may be used in a
generic context and invoke ``value`` with a parameter or result type
of unknown size, the compiler has to pick a more conservative representation
for the closure that uses indirect argument passing, whereas ``Bas.value``
has a fully concrete closure type so can always use a more specialized
direct register-based calling convention. The compiler transparently
introduces `reabstraction` conversions when a value is used with a
different abstraction pattern. (This is where the infamous "reabstraction
thunk helpers" sometimes seen in Swift backtraces come from.)
archetype
A placeholder for a generic parameter or an associated type within a
generic context. Sometimes known as a "rigid type variable" in formal
CS literature. Directly stores its conforming protocols and nested
archetypes, if any.
AST
"Abstract syntax tree", although in practice it's more of a directed graph.
A parsed representation of code used by a compiler.
bitcode
Serialized LLVM `IR`.
build czar
Apple term for "the person assigned to watch CI this week".
canonical SIL
SIL after the
`mandatory passes <mandatory passes / mandatory optimizations>` have run.
This can be used as input to IRGen to generate LLVM IR or object files.
canonical type
A unique representation of a type, with any `sugar <sugared type>` removed.
These can usually be directly compared to test whether two types are the
same; the exception is when generics get involved. In this case you'll need
a `generic environment`. Contrast with `sugared type`.
Clang importer
The part of the compiler that reads C and Objective-C declarations and
exposes them as Swift. Essentially contains a small instance of Clang
running inside the Swift compiler, which is also used during IRGen.
conformance
A construct detailing how a particular type conforms to a particular
protocol. Represented in the compiler by the ProtocolConformance type at
the AST level. See also `witness table`.
contextual type
1. The expected type for a Swift sub-expression based on the rest of the
statement. For example, in the statement ``print(6 * 9)``, the contextual
type of the expression ``6 * 9`` is ``Any``.
2. The type of a value or declaration from inside a potentially generic
context. This type may contain `archetypes <archetype>` and cannot be
used directly from outside the context. Compare with `interface type`.
customization point
Informal term for a protocol requirement that has a default implementation,
i.e. one that conforming types don't *have* to implement but have the option
to "customize".
DI (definite initialization / definitive initialization)
The feature that no uninitialized variables, constants, or properties will
be read by a program, or the analysis pass that operates on SIL to
guarantee this. This was `discussed on Apple's Swift blog`__.
__ https://developer.apple.com/swift/blog/?id=28
DNM
"Do not merge". Placed in PR titles where discussion or analysis is still
ongoing.
dup
From "duplicate". As a noun, refers to another filed issue that describes
the same bug ("I have a dup of this"); as a verb, the act of marking a bug
*as* a duplicate ("Please dup this to the underlying issue"). Sometimes
written "dupe". Pronounced the same way as the first syllable of
"duplicate", which for most American English speakers is "doop".
existential
A value whose type is a protocol composition (including a single protocol
and *zero* protocols; the latter is the ``Any`` type).
fragile
Describes a type or function where making changes will break binary
compatibility. See :doc:`LibraryEvolution.rst <LibraryEvolution>`.
generic environment
Provides context for interpreting a type that may have generic parameters
in it. Generic parameter types are normally just represented as "first
generic parameter in the outermost context" (or similar), so it's up to the
generic environment to note that that type must be a Collection. (Another
way of looking at it is that the generic environment connects
`interface types <interface type>` with
`contextual types <contextual type>`).
generic signature
A representation of all generic parameters and their requirements. Like
types, generic signatures can be `canonicalized <canonical type>` to be
compared directly.
iff
"`if and only if`__". This term comes from mathematics.
__ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_and_only_if
interface type
The type of a value or declaration outside its generic context. These types
are written using "formal" generic types, which only have meaning when
combined with a particular generic declaration's "generic signature".
Unlike `contextual types <contextual type>`, interface types store
conformances and requirements in the generic signature and not in the types
themselves. They can be compared across declarations but cannot be used
directly from within the context.
irrefutable pattern
A pattern that always matches. These patterns either bind to a variable or
perform structural modification, e.x.:
1. ``case _:``.
2. ``case let x:``.
3. ``case (_, _):``.
IR
1. "intermediate representation": a generic term for a format representing
code in a way that is easy for a compiler or tool to manipulate.
2. "LLVM IR": a particular IR used by the LLVM libraries for optimization
and generation of machine code.
IUO (implicitly unwrapped optional)
A type like Optional, but it implicitly converts to its wrapped type. If
the value is ``nil`` during such a conversion, the program traps just as
it would when a normal Optional is force-unwrapped. IUOs implicitly
convert to and from normal Optionals with the same wrapped type.
IWYU (include what you use)
The accepted wisdom that implementation files (``.cpp``, ``.c``, ``.m``,
``.mm``) should explicitly ``#include`` or ``#import`` the headers they use.
Doing so prevents compilation errors when header files are included in a
different order, or when header files are modified to use forward
declarations instead of direct includes.
LGTM
"Looks good to me." Used in code review to indicate approval with no further
comments.
LLVM IR
See `IR`.
lvalue
Pronounced "L-value". Refers to an expression that can be assigned to or
passed ``inout``. The term originally comes from C; the "L" refers to the
"l"eft side of an assignment operator. See also `rvalue`.
main module
The module for the file or files currently being compiled.
mandatory passes / mandatory optimizations
Transformations over SIL that run immediately after SIL generation. Once
all mandatory passes have run (and if no errors are found), the SIL is
considered `canonical <canonical SIL>`.
metatype
The type of a value representing a type. Greg Parker has a good
explanation of `Objective-C's "metaclasses"`__; because Swift has types
that are *not* classes, a more general term is used.
We also sometimes refer to a value representing a type as a "metatype
object" or just "metatype", usually within low-level contexts like IRGen
and LLDB. This is technically incorrect (it's just a "type object"), but
the malapropism happened early in the project and has stuck around.
__ http://sealiesoftware.com/blog/archive/2009/04/14/objc_explain_Classes_and_metaclasses.html
model
A type that conforms to a particular protocol. Sometimes "concrete
model". Example: "Array and Set are both models of CollectionType".
module
Has *many* uses in the Swift world. We may want to rename some of them.
#1 and #2 are the most common.
1. A unit of API distribution and grouping. The ``import`` declaration
brings modules into scope. Represented as ModuleDecl in the compiler.
2. A compilation unit; that is, source files that are compiled together.
These files may contain cross-references. Represented as "the main
module" (a specific ModuleDecl).
3. (as "SIL module") A container for SIL to be compiled together, along
with various context for the compilation.
4. (as "LLVM module") A collection of LLVM IR to be compiled together.
Always created in an LLVMContext.
5. A file containing serialized AST and SIL information for a source file
or entire compilation unit. Often "swiftmodule file", with "swiftmodule"
pronounced as a single word.
6. (as "Clang module") A set of self-contained C-family header files.
Represented by a ClangModuleUnit in the Swift compiler, each of which is
contained in its own ModuleDecl. For more information, see
`Clang's documentation for Modules`__.
7. Shorthand for a "precompiled module file"; effectively "precompiled
headers" for an entire Clang module. Never used directly by Swift.
See also `module cache`.
__ http://clang.llvm.org/docs/Modules.html
module cache
Clang's cache directory for precompiled module files. As cache files, these
are not forward-compatible, and so cannot be loaded by different versions
of Clang (or programs using Clang, like the Swift compiler). Normally this
is fine, but occasionally a development compiler will not have proper
version information and may try to load older module files, resulting in
crashes in ``clang::ASTReader``.
NFC
"No functionality change." Written in commit messages that are intended to
have no change on the compiler or library's behavior, though for some this
refers to having the *same* implementation and for others merely an
*equivalent* one. "NFC" is typically used to explain why a patch has no
included testcase, since the Swift project requires testcases for all
patches that change functionality.
open existential
An `existential` value with its dynamic type pulled out, so that the
compiler can do something with it.
overlay
A library that is imported whenever a C library or framework by the same
name is imported. The purpose of an overlay is to augment and extend a
library on the system when the library on the system cannot be modified.
Apple has a number of overlays for its own SDKs in stdlib/public/SDK/.
PCH
Precompiled header, a type of file ending in .pch. A precompiled header is
like a precompiled module, in the sense that it's the same file format and
is just a cache file produced by clang and read by ``clang::ASTReader``. The
difference is that PCH files are not "modular": they do not correspond to a
named module, and cannot be read in any order or imported by module-name;
rather they must be the first file parsed by the compiler. PCHs are used
only to accelerate the process of reading C/C++/Objective-C headers, such as
the bridging headers read in by the ``-import-objc-header`` command-line
flag to swiftc.
PR
1. "Problem Report": An issue reported in `LLVM's bug tracker`__.
See also `SR`.
2. "pull request"
__ https://llvm.org/bugs/
primary file
The file currently being compiled, as opposed to the other files that are
only needed for context. See also
`Whole-Module Optimization <WMO (whole-module optimization)>`.
QoI
"Quality of implementation." The term is meant to describe not how
well-engineered a particular implementation is, but how much value it
provides to users beyond a sort of minimum expectation. Good diagnostics
are a matter of QoI, as is good unoptimized performance. For example, a
comment like "FIXME: QoI could be improved here" is suggesting that there's
some sort of non-mandatory work that could be done that would improve the
behavior of the compiler--it is not just a general statement that the code
needs to be improved.
It's possible that this term was originally "quality of life", written as
"Qol", referring to the experience of end users. At some point along its
history, the lowercase "L" was misinterpreted as an uppercase "i", and a
new meaning derived. Swift inherited this term from LLVM, which got it from
GCC.
Radar
`Apple's bug-tracking system`__, or an issue reported on that system.
__ https://bugreport.apple.com
raw SIL
SIL just after being generated, not yet in a form that can be used for
IR generation.
See `mandatory passes <mandatory passes / mandatory optimizations>`.
reabstraction
An implicit representation change that occurs when a value is used with
a different `abstraction pattern` from its current representation.
refutable pattern
A pattern that may not always match. These include patterns such as:
1. Isa check, e.g. ``case let x as String:``.
2. Enum case check: e.g. ``case .none:``.
3. Expr pattern: e.g. ``case foo():``.
resilient
Describes a type or function where making certain changes will not break
binary compatibility. See :doc:`LibraryEvolution.rst <LibraryEvolution>`.
runtime
Code that implements a language's dynamic features that aren't just
compiled down to plain instructions. For example, Swift's runtime library
includes support for dynamic casting and for the Mirror-based reflection.
rvalue
Pronounced "R-value". Represents an expression that can be used as a value;
in Swift this is nearly every expression, so we don't use the term very
often. The term originally comes from C; the "R" refers to the "r"ight side
of an assignment operator. Contrast with `lvalue`.
script mode
The parsing mode that allows top-level imperative code in a source file.
Sema
Short for 'Semantic Analysis', the compiler pass that performs type checking,
validation, and expression rewriting before SILGen.
SIL
"Swift Intermediate Language". A high-level IR used by the Swift compiler
for flow-sensitive diagnostics, optimization, and LLVM IR generation.
SR
An issue reported on `bugs.swift.org <https://bugs.swift.org>`_. A
backronym for "Swift Report"; really the name is derived from LLVM's
idiomatic use of "PR" ("Problem Report") for its bugs. We didn't go with
"PR" for Swift because we wanted to be able to unambiguously reference
LLVM bugs.
stdlib
"Standard library". Sometimes this just means the "Swift" module (also
known as "swiftCore"); sometimes it means everything in the stdlib/
directory. Pronounced "stid-lib" or "ess-tee-dee-lib".
sugared type
A type that may have been written in a more convenient way, using special
language syntax or a typealias. (For example, ``Int?`` is the sugared form
of ``Optional<Int>``.) Sugared types preserve information about the form
and use of the type even though the behavior usually does not change
(except for things like access control). Contrast with `canonical type`.
thunk
In the Swift compiler, a synthesized function whose only purpose is to
perform some kind of adjustment in order to call another function. For
example, Objective-C and Swift have different calling conventions, so the
Swift compiler generates a thunk for use in Objective-C that calls through
to the real Swift implementation.
trap
A deterministic runtime failure. Can be used as both as a noun ("Using an
out-of-bounds index on an Array results in a trap") and a verb
("Force-unwrapping a nil Optional will trap").
type metadata
The runtime representation of a type, and everything you can do with it.
Like a ``Class`` in Objective-C, but for any type.
USR
A Unified Symbol Resolution (USR) is a string that identifies a particular
entity (function, class, variable, etc.) within a program. USRs can be
compared across translation units to determine, e.g., when references in
one translation refer to an entity defined in another translation unit.
value witness table
A runtime structure that describes how to do basic operations on an unknown
value, like "assign", "copy", and "destroy". (For example, does copying
this value require any retains?)
Only conceptually related to a `witness table`.
vtable (virtual dispatch table)
A map attached to a class of which implementation to use for each
overridable method in the class. Unlike an Objective-C method table,
vtable keys are just offsets, making lookup much simpler at the cost of
dynamism and duplicated information about *non*-overridden methods.
WIP
"Work-in-progress". Placed in PR titles to indicate that the PR is not ready
for review or merging.
witness
The value or type that satisfies a protocol requirement.
witness table
The SIL (and runtime) representation of a `conformance`; essentially a
`vtable <vtable (virtual dispatch table)>` but for a protocol instead of
a class.
Only conceptually related to a `value witness table`.
WMO (whole-module optimization)
A compilation mode where all files in a module are compiled in a single
process. In this mode there is no `primary file`; all files are parsed,
type-checked, and optimized together at the SIL level. LLVM optimization
and object file generation may happen all together or in separate threads.